Table 1.
Essential oils showing antiviral activity.
| Essential Oil | Major Components | Assay | IC50 (μg/mL) | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aloysia gratissima (Gillies & Hook.) Tronc. | caryophyllene oxide (15.8%), guaiol (17.4%) a, chrysanthenyl acetate (5.6%), and limonene oxide (5.3%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 65.0 | [37] | |
| Aloysia triphylla Royle | α-thujone (22.9%), cis−carveol (17.5%), carvone (13.2%), and limonene (12.7%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | >250 | [38] | |
| Artemisia arborescens L. | camphor (35.7%), β-thujone (24.0%), and chamazulene (7.7%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 25% inhibition at 100 μg/mL | [39] | |
| Artemisia arborescens L. | Artemisia arborescens L. | β-thujone (45.0%), camphor (6.8%), and chamazulene (22.7%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 2.4, 4.1 | [40] |
| Artemisia douglasiana Besser | α-thujone (68.3%) and β-thujone (7.5%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 83 | [37] | |
| Artemisia kermanensis Podlech (syn. Seriphidium kermanense (Podlech) K. Bremer & Humphries | α-thujone (13.8%), camphor (10.2%), and β-thujone (6.2%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 40 | [41] | |
| Artemisia mendozana DC. | camphor (22.4%), artemiseole (11.7%), artemisia alcohol (10.8%), and borneol (7.2%) | Plaque reduction assay, DENV−2, JUNV and HSV-1 | 129.3, 178.6, and 153.7 | [38] | |
| Artemisia princeps Pamp. | borneol (12.1%), α-thujone (8.7%), τ−cadinol, (6.7%), and 1,8-cineole (6.2%) | Plaque reduction assay, murine norovirus−1 | 64% inhibition at 0.01% | [42] | |
| Plaque reduction assay, feline calicivirus−F9 | 48% inhibition at 0.1% | ||||
| Artemisia vulgaris L. | α-thujone (38.1%), β-thujone (10.6%), and 1,8-cineole (8.8%) | Virus yield assay (Vero cells), yellow fever virus (YFV) | 100 μg/mL (100% inhibition) | [43] | |
| Ayapana triplinervis (Vahl) R.M. King & H. Rob. | thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether | Plaque reduction assay (A549 cells), Zika virus | 38.0 | [44] | |
| Buddleja cordobensis Griseb. | caryophyllene oxide (32.1%), β-caryophyllene (16.5%), and α-copaene (8.5%) | Plaque reduction assay, DENV−2, JUNV and HSV-1 | 86.4, 39.0, and 54.1 | [38] | |
| Cedrus libani A. Rich. | himachalol (22.5%), β-himachalene (21.9%), and α-himachalene (10.5%) | Cytopathic effect (CPE) on Vero cells, HSV-1 | 440 | [45] | |
| Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (syn. Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) | eugenol (75–85%), linalool (1.6−8.5%), (E)−cinnamaldehyde (0.6−1.5%), (E)−cinnamyl acetate (0.7–2.6%), β-caryophyllene (0.5–6.7%), eugenyl acetate (0.1–2.9%), and benzyl benzoate (0.1–8.3%) | Influenza type A (H1N1) | [46] | ||
| Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (syn. Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) | (E)−cinnamaldehyde (63.9%), eugenol (7.0%), and (E)−cinnamyl acetate (5.1%) c | Plaque reduction assay (HeLa cells), HSV-2 | 82 | [47] | |
| Citrus × bergamia Risso & Poit. | limonene (23–55%), linalool (2–37%), linalyl acetate (12–41%), β-pinene (up to 10%), and γ-terpinene (up to 10%) | Influenza virus type A H1N1 | 100% inhibition at 0.3% | [46] | |
| Citrus limonum Risso | limonene (54.6%), γ-terpinene (19.1%), and β-pinene (14.5%) d | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2500 | [48] | |
| Citrus reshni Hort ex Tan. (leaf EO) | sabinene (40.5%), linalool (23.3%), and terpinen-4-ol (8.3%) | Plaque reduction assay, influenza A virus H5N1 | 19.4% inhibition at 0.1 μL/mL | [36] | |
| Citrus reshni Hort ex Tan. (unripe fruit peel EO) | limonene (82.4%) and linalool (7.2%) | Plaque reduction assay, influenza A virus H5N1 | 61.5% inhibition at 1.5 μL/mL | [36] | |
| Citrus reshni Hort ex Tan. (ripe fruit peel EO) | limonene (91.6%) | Plaque reduction assay, influenza A virus H5N1 | 50% inhibition at 1.5 μL/mL | [36] | |
| Cupressus sempervirens L. | α-pinene (51.9%) and δ-3-carene (24.9%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 6600 | [48] | |
| Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf | geranial (40.2%), neral (30.6%), and geraniol (6.7%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 91 | [48] | |
| Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees) Will. Watson | geranial (48–54%) and neral (29–33%) | Influenza virus type A (H1N1) | [46] | ||
| Cynanchum stauntonii (Decne.) Schltr. ex H. Lév. | (2E,4E)-decadienal (23.0%), γ-nonalactone (4.2%), 5-pentyl-2(3H)−furanone (3.8%), and 3-isopropyl-1-pentanol (3.5%) | Influenza type A (H1N1) | 64 | [46] | |
| Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants | cis-ascaridole (60.7%) and m-cymene (22.2%) | Plaque reduction assay, Coxsackie virus B4 | 21.75 | [49] | |
| Eucalyptus astringens (Maiden) Maiden | 1,8-cineole (42.0%), α-pinene (22.0%), and trans−pinocarveol (7.0%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 13.0 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus bicostata Maiden, Blakely & Simmonds | 1,8-cineole (68.0%), globulol (5.4%), and trans−pinocarveol (4.6%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 13.6 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus caesia Benth. | 1,8-cineole (40.2%), p-cymene (14.1%), γ-terpinene (12.4%), α-pinene (7.7%), and terpinen-4-ol (5.6%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 70 | [41] | |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. | α-terpinene (26.3%), α-terpineol (9.1%), and camphene (8.5%) e | Plaque reduction assay, Rotavirus Wa strain | 50% inhibition at 10% EO concentration | [51] | |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. | α-terpinene (26.3%), α-terpineol (9.1%), and camphene (8.5%) e | Plaque reduction assay, Coxsackie virus B4 | 53.3% at 10% EO concentration | [51] | |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. | α-terpinene (26.3%), α-terpineol (9.1%), and camphene (8.5%) e | Plaque reduction assay, HSV-1 | 90% at 10% EO concentration | [51] | |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. | α-terpinene (26.3%), α-terpineol (9.1%), and camphene (8.5%) e | Plaque reduction assay, adenovirus type 7 | 0% at 10% EO concentration | [51] | |
| Eucalyptus cinereal F. Muell. ex Benth. | 1,8-cineole (70.4%), α-pinene (4.5%), and limonene (3.7%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 13.0 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | 1,8-cineole (63.8%) and α-pinene (14.0%) f | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 1700 | [48] | |
| Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | 1,8-cineole (63.8%) and α-pinene (14.0%) f | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 55.0 | [52] | |
| Eucalyptus lehmannii (Schauer) Benth. | 1,8-cineole (59.6%), α-pinene (17.6%), and α-terpineol (8.7%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 11.5 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus leucoxylon F. Muell. | 1,8-cineole (59.2%), α-pinene (7.8%), and α-terpineol (4.3%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 8.1 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus maidenii F. Muell. | 1,8-cineole (57.8%), p-cymene (7.4%), and α-pinene (7.3%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 14.5 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus odorata Behr | cryptone (20.9%), p-cymene (16.7%), phellandral (6.6%), and cuminal (6.6%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 19.2 | [50] | |
| Eucalyptus sideroxylon A. Cunn. ex Woolls | 1,8-cineole (69.2%), α-pinene (6.9%), and α-terpineol (5.4%) | Vero cells, Coxsakie virus B3 | 12.3 | [50] | |
| Eupatorium patens D. Don ex Hook. & Arn. | germacrene D (36.2%), β-caryophyllene (14.1%), and bicyclogermacrene (7.0%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 125 | [37] | |
| Fortunella margarita (Lour.) Swingle (leaf EO) | α-terpineol (55.5%), carvone (5.7%), carveol (5.5%), γ-muurolene (5.5%), and citronellal (5.0%) | MTT assay, reasserted avian influenza A virus, H5N1 | 6.77 | [53] | |
| Fortunella margarita (Lour.) Swingle (fruit EO) | β-eudesmol (28.3%), α-muurolene (10.3%), β-gurjunene (10.0%), γ-eudesmol (8.4%), and γ-muurolene (6.6%) | MTT assay, reasserted avian influenza A virus, H5N1 | 38.89 | [53] | |
| Gaillardia megapotamica (Spreng.) Baker | β-pinene (24.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (16.5%), α-pinene (7.7%), limonene (7.5%), and β-caryophyllene (6.7%) | Plaque reduction assay, DENV−2, JUNV and HSV-1 | 140.6, 49.8, and 99.1 | [38] | |
| Heterothalamus alienus (Spreng.) Kuntze | β-pinene (35.5%), spathulenol (10.7%), and germacrene D (6.8%) | Plaque reduction assay DENV−2, JUNV and HSV-1 | 122.3, 44.2 and 148.4 | [38] | |
| Heterotheca latifolia Buckley | borneol (40.0%), camphor (24.3%), and limonene (5.1%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | >150 | [37] | |
| Houttuynia cordata Thunb. | decanal (3.4−8.9%), decanol (up to 7.0%), 2−undecanone (23.0−36.1%), decanoic acid (1.4−6.3%), dodecanal (up to 7.3%), and 2−tridecanone (2.6−5.6%) | Influenza type A (H1N1) | 48 | [54] | |
| Hyptis mutabilis (Rich.) Briq. | fenchone (17.1%), 1,8-cineole (12.6%), β-caryophyllene (10.9%), bicyclogermacrene (8.7%), and germacrene D (6.2%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-2 (Human Herpesvirus type 1) | 79.01 | [55] | |
| Hyptis mutabilis (Rich.) Briq. | germacrene D (15.1%), β-caryophyllene (13.3%), curzerene (13.3%), and bicyclogermacrene (13.2%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells) | >150 | [37] | |
| Hyssopus officinalis L. | cis−pinocamphone (40.1%), trans−pinocamphone (13.3%), β-pinene (10.7%), and β-phellandrene (5.3%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 1 | [56] | |
| Hyssopus officinalis L. | cis−pinocamphone (40.1%), trans−pinocamphone (13.3%), β-pinene (10.7%), and β-phellandrene (5.3%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-2 | 6 | [57] | |
| Illicium verum Hook. f. | (E)−anethole (90.5%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 40 | [58] | |
| Illicium verum Hook. f. | (E)−anethole (90.5%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 1 | [59] | |
| Illicium verum Hook. f. | (E)−anethole (90.5%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-2 | 30 | [57] | |
| Jungia polita Griseb. | caryophyllene oxide (9.2%) and β-caryophyllene (8.1%) | Plaque reduction assay DENV−2, JUNV and HSV-1 | 39.8, 134.2 and 136.4 | [38] | |
| Juniperus communis L. | α-pinene (46.7%), myrcene (15.0%), sabinene (13.2%), and limonene (7.0%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | >10000 | [48] | |
| Lavandula angustifolia Mill. | linalyl acetate (37.0−43.6%), linalool (19.7−39.1%), geraniol (up to 9.3%), β-caryophyllene (up to 5.1%), terpinene−4−ol (up to 14.9%), lavandulol (up to 1.5%), lavandulyl acetate (up to 5.5%), 1,8-cineole (up to 4.1%), and borneol (up to 6.4%) | 85% in vitro inhibition of influenza type A (H1N1) | [46] | ||
| Lavandula latifolia Medik. | linalool (31.9%), 1,8-cineole (18.8%), and borneol (10.1%) g | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2200 | [48] | |
| Lepechinia salviifolia (Kunth) Epling | camphor (10.3%), limonene (9.7%), p−mentha−1(7),8−diene (7.4%), α-pinene (6.9%), and γ-terpinene (6.7%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 68.8, 81.9 | [55] | |
| Lepechinia vulcanicola J.R.I. Wood | limonene (18.9%), germacrene D (10.4%), 1−octen−3−ol (8.8%), β-caryophyllene (8.7%), and α-pinene (8.2%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 112, 68.9 | [55] | |
| Leptospermum scoparium J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. | calamene (16.0%), leptospermone (14.5%), δ−cadinene (6.1%), flavesone (4.5%), viridiflorene (4.4%), and isoleptospermone (3.9%) | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 0.96, 0.58 | [60] | |
| Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson | carvone (51.0%), Limonene (33%), and bicyclosesquiphellandrene (7.0%) | Virus yield assay (Vero cells), yellow fever virus (YFV) | 100 μg/mL (100% inhibition) | [43] | |
| Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson | carvone (39.7%), limonene (30.6%), and bicyclosesquiphellandrene (8.9%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), DENV−1, DENV−2, DENV−3, DENV−4, YFV 17 DD | 10.1, 0.4, 32.6, 21.1, 4.9 | [61] | |
| Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson | carvone (39.7%), limonene (30.6%), and bicyclosesquiphellandrene (8.9%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), Yellow fever (YFV) | 4.3 | [62] | |
| Lippia citriodora Kunth (syn. Aloysia citriodora Palau) | geranial (18.9%), neral (15.6%), limonene (10.7%), and 1,8-cineole (5.0) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), DENV−1, DENV−2, DENV−3, DENV−4, YFV 17 DD | 1.9, 2.9, 2.6, 33.7, 5.7 | [61] | |
| Lippia citriodora Kunth (syn. Aloysia citriodora Palau) | geranial (18.9%), neral (15.6%), limonene (10.7%), and 1,8-cineole (5.0) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), Yellow fever (YFV) | 19.4 | [62] | |
| Lippia graveolens Kunth | carvacrol (56.8%), o−cymene (32.1%), and γ-terpinene (3.7%) h | MTT assay (Mardin−Darby bovine kidney cells), HSV-1, ACVR−HSV-1 (acyclovir−resistant HSV-1), HRSV (human respiratory syncytial virus) | 99.6, 55.9, 68.0 | [63] | |
| Lippia junelliana (Moldenke) Tronc. | piperitenone oxide (= rotundifolone) (36.5%), limonene (23.1%), camphor (7.9%), and spathulenol (6.5%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | >150 | [37] | |
| Lippia origanoides | carvacrol (44.0%), thymol (15.0%), and γ-terpinene (10.0%) | Virus yield assay (Vero cells), yellow fever virus (YFV) | 11.1 μg/mL (100% inhibition) | [43] | |
| Lippia turbinata Griseb. | limonene (60.6%), piperitenone oxide (17.4%), and β-caryophyllene (6.4%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | > 150 | [37] | |
| Matricaria recutita L. | α-bisabolol oxide A (13.4–55.9%), α-bisabolol oxide B (8.4–25.1%), bisabolone oxide A (2.9–11.4%), cis−bicycloether (= (Z)−spiroether) (3.6–17.7%), and (E)-β-farnesene (1.9–10.4%) i | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 0.3 | [58] | |
| Matricaria recutita L. | α-bisabolol oxide A (13.4–55.9%), α-bisabolol oxide B (8.4–25.1%), bisabolone oxide A (2.9−11.4%), cis−bicycloether (= (Z)−spiroether) (3.6–17.7%), and (E)-β-farnesene (1.9–10.4%) i | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-2 | 1.5 | [57] | |
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (36.71%), γ-terpinene (22.20%), and α-terpinene (10.10%) | Plaque reduction assay, influenza A⁄PR ⁄ 8 virus subtype H1N1 | 60 | [31] | |
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (30–48%), γ-terpinene (10–28%), α-terpinene (5–13%), 1,8-cineole (up to 15%), terpinolene (1.5−5%), p-cymene (0.5–12%), α-pinene (1–6%), and α-terpineol (1.5–8%) | 100% inhibition of influenza type A (H1N1) virus at 0.01%; type A (H11N9) virus to tea tree oil vapor caused 100% inhibition | [46] | ||
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (47.5%), γ-terpinene (20.2%), and α-terpinene (8.6%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2700 | [48] | |
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (47.5%), γ-terpinene (20.2%), and α-terpinene (8.6%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 13.2 | [64] | |
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (47.5%), γ-terpinene (20.2%), and α-terpinene (8.6%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 2 | [52] | |
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (47.5%), γ-terpinene (20.2%), and α-terpinene (8.6%) c | Plaque reduction assay (HeLa cells), HSV-2 | 2700 | [47] | |
| Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel | terpinen-4-ol (47.5%), γ-terpinene (20.2%), and α-terpinene (8.6%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | significant plaque reduction at 10 and 5% v/v | [65] | |
| Melaleuca armillaris (Sol. ex Gaertn.) Sm. | 1,8-cineole (33.9%), terpinen-4-ol (18.8%), and γ-terpinene (10.4%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 99% plaque reduction (concentration not given) | [66] | |
| Melaleuca ericifolia Sm. | methyl eugenol (96.84%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 91.5% plaque reduction (concentration not given) | [66] | |
| Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. | 1,8-cineole (64.3%), α-terpineol (11.0%), and valencene (3.91%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 92% plaque reduction (concentration not given) | [66] | |
| Melissa officinalis L. | neral (17−32%), geranial (23–43%), linalool (up to 9.0%), citronellal (0.7–20.3%), geraniol (up to 23.2%), β-caryophyllene (up to 11.3%), and caryophyllene oxide (0.4−31.7%) | influenza A virus (H9N2) | Significant reduction at 5 μg/mL | [46] | |
| Melissa officinalis L. | β-cubebene (15.4%), β-caryophyllene (14.2%), α-cadinol (7.2%), geranial (6.6%), and neral (5.8%) | Plaque reduction assay (HEp−2 cells), HSV-2 | 21 | [67] | |
| Melissa officinalis L. | geranial (20.1%), β-caryophyllene (17.3%), and neral (13.6%) | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 4, 0.8 | [68] | |
| Mentha × piperita L. | menthol (42.8%), menthone (14.6%), and isomenthone (5.9%) | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 20, 8 | [69] | |
| Mentha × piperita L. | menthol (43.8%), menthone (19.7%), menthyl acetate (6.5%), and 1,8-cineole (5.0%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2200 | [48] | |
| Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. | limonene (7.4%), isopulegol (12.0%), and piperitenone oxide (41.8%) | Plaque reduction assay, cytopathogenic murine norovirus | 0.87 | [70] | |
| Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. | piperitenone oxide (86.9%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 5.1 | [64] | |
| Minthostachys mollis Griseb. | cis−piperitone epoxide (29.9%), piperitenone oxide (25.6%), menthone (7.4%), germacrene D (5.8%), and pulegone (5.5%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 70.7, 68.0 | [55] | |
| Ocimum basilicum var. album (L.) Benth. | linalool (53.8%) and eugenol (12.6%) j | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | >10000 | [48] | |
| Ocimum campechianum Mill. | methyl eugenol (53.9%), β-caryophyllene (13.0%), α-bulnesene (5.4%), germacrene D (3.4%), and α-humulene (3.3%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-2 | 74.33 | [55] | |
| Origanum elongatum Emb. (leaf EO) | p-cymene (16.2%), γ-terpinene (13.5%), thymol (14.2%), and carvacrol (19.2%) | Plaque reduction assay, cytopathogenic murine norovirus | 0.37 | [70] | |
| Origanum elongatum Emb. (inflorescence EO) | p-cymene (16.1%), γ-terpinene (7.3%), and carvacrol (40.1%), | Plaque reduction assay, cytopathogenic murine norovirus | 0.75 | [70] | |
| Origanum majorana L. | terpinen-4-ol (28.9%), γ-terpinene (14.9%), trans−sabinene hydrate (9.5%), α-terpinene (8.7%), and sabinene (7.2%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2800 | [48] | |
| Origanum majorana L. | terpinen-4-ol (28.9%), γ-terpinene (14.9%), trans−sabinene hydrate (9.5%), α-terpinene (8.7%), and sabinene (7.2%) c | Plaque reduction assay (HeLa cells), HSV-2 | 520 | [47] | |
| Origanum vulgare L. | trans−sabinene hydrate (21.0%), thymol (11.0%), and carvacrol methyl ether (11.0%) | Virus yield assay (Vero cells), yellow fever virus (YFV) | 100 μg/mL (100% inhibition) | [43] | |
| Osmunda regalis L. | hexahydrofarnesyl acetone ( = phytone) (11.8%), 2,4−di−t−butylphenol (6.8%), phytol (6.5%), hexadecene (4.1%), and octadecene (4.4%) | Plaque reduction assay, Coxsackie virus B4 type 2 | 2.24 | [71] | |
| Pectis odorata Griseb. | limonene (50.2%), neral (27.2%), and geranial (23.6%) | Plaque reduction assay DENV−2, JUNV and HSV-1 | 39.6, 36.6, and 71.5 | [38] | |
| Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér. ex Aiton | citronellol (21.9–37.5%), citronellyl formate (9.8–20.6%), geraniol (6.0–16.5%), geranyl formate (1.5–6.5%), menthone (up to 13%), isomenthone (up to 9.9%), and linalool (0.8−14.9%) | influenza type A (H1N1) | 95% inhibition at 0.3% | [46] | |
| Pinus mugo Turra | δ-3-carene (23.9%), α-pinene (17.9%), β-pinene (7.8%), and β-phellandrene (7.2%) k | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 7 | [58] | |
| Ravensara aromatica Sonn. (syn. Cryptocarya agathophylla van der Werff) | 1,8-cineole (52.6%), α-terpineol (12.4%), and sabinene (11.0%) l | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2800 | [48] | |
| Rosmarinus officinalis L. | α-pinene (23.9%), verbenone (15.4%), camphor (11.0%), camphene (8.7%), p-cymene (7.5%), and 3−octanone (5.6%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 60 | [41] | |
| Rosmarinus officinalis L. | 1,8-cineole (45.9%), α-pinene (12.0%), camphor (10.9%), and β-pinene (6.3%) b | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 2700 | [48] | |
| Salvia fruticosa Mill. | 1,8-cineole (47.5%), camphor (9.0%), β-thujone (7.6%), and α-thujone (4.3%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 and HSV-2 | 1300 | [72] | |
| Santalum album L. | (Z)−α-santalol (45.2%), (Z)-β-santalol (25.4%), and (Z)−trans−α-bergamotol (7.8%) c | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1, HSV-2 | 22.7, 45.3 | [73] | |
| Santalum album L. | (Z)−α-santalol (45.2%), (Z)-β-santalol (25.4%), and (Z)−trans−α-bergamotol (7.8%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 2 | [56] | |
| Santalum album L. | (Z)−α-santalol (45.2%), (Z)-β-santalol (25.4%), and (Z)−trans−α-bergamotol (7.8%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-2 | 5 | [57] | |
| Santolina insularis (Gennari ex Fiori) Arrigoni | artemisia ketone (21.2%), allo−aromadendrene (12.7%), 1,8-cineole (9.0%), and camphene (8.5%) m | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 and HSV-2 | 0.88, 0.7 | [74] | |
| Satureja hortensis L. | carvacrol (32.4%), γ-terpinene (32.0%), thymol (10.0%), and p-cymene (6.6%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 80 | [41] | |
| Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC. | caryophyllene oxide (12.2%), (E)-β-damascenone, γ-eudesmol (8.5%), α-gurjunene (5.8%), and terpinen-4-ol (5.4%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 105 | [37] | |
| Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link (unripe fruit EO) | carvacrol (68.6%), p-cymene (4.8%), γ-terpinene (3.0%), and β-caryophyllene (2.9%) | Plaque reduction assay, cytopathogenic murine norovirus | 0.49 | [70] | |
| Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link (ripe fruit EO) | carvacrol (58.8%), p-cymene (5.6%), γ-terpinene (2.8%), and β-caryophyllene (2.6%) | Plaque reduction assay, cytopathogenic murine norovirus | 0.50 | [70] | |
| Thymus vulgaris L. | thymol (31–50%), p-cymene (0.1–26.6%), and γ-terpinene (up to 22.8%) | 100% inhibition of type A (H1N1) virus at 0.3% concentration | [46] | ||
| Thymus vulgaris L. | thymol (43.9%), carvacrol (14.4%), p-cymene (10.5%), β-caryophyllene (7.0%), and γ-terpinene (5.1%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 10 | [56] | |
| Thymus vulgaris L. | thymol (43.9%), carvacrol (14.4%), p-cymene (10.5%), β-caryophyllene (7.0%), and γ-terpinene (5.1%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 11 | [52] | |
| Thymus vulgaris L. | thymol (43.9%), carvacrol (14.4%), p-cymene (10.5%), β-caryophyllene (7.0%), and γ-terpinene (5.1%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-2 | 7 | [57] | |
| Thymus willdenowii Boiss. | 1,8-cineole (34.62%), camphor (18.55%), α-pinene (9.46%), and camphene (5.38%) | Plaque reduction assay, Coxsackie virus | Inactive | [75] | |
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | thymol (35–60%), α-pinene, p-cymene, and limonene | Plaque reduction assay, Japanese encephalitis virus | 80% reduction at 500 μg/mL | [76] | |
| Zataria multiflora Boiss. | thymol (47.3%), carvacrol (21.9%), p-cymene (8.6%), γ-terpinene (4.2%), and β-caryophyllene (3.0%) | Real time PCR (H9N2 subtype of AIV) | Reduced viral replication in trachea of broiler chickens | [77] | |
| Zataria multiflora Boiss. | thymol (33.1%), carvacrol (25.9%), and p-cymene (11.3%) | Plaque reduction assay (Vero cells), HSV-1 | 30 | [41] | |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | α-zingiberene (32.1%), ar−curcumene (15.2%), β-sesquiphellandrene (10.9%), α-farnesene (7.2%), and α-phellandrene (4.4%) | Plaque reduction assay, Caprine alphaherpesvirus type I | not determined | [78] | |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | α-zingiberene (26.4%), camphene (12.6%), β-sesquiphellandrene (9.2%), ar−curcumene (6.5%), β-phellandrene (6.2%), and β-bisabolene (5.1%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-1 | 2 | [56] | |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | α-zingiberene (26.4%), camphene (12.6%), β-sesquiphellandrene (9.2%), ar−curcumene (6.5%), β-phellandrene (6.2%), and β-bisabolene (5.1%) c | Plaque reduction assay (RC-37 cells), HSV-2 | 1 | [57] |
a Reported as cadinol, but see [79,80]. b Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [81]. c Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition of commercial (dōTERRA International, Pleasant Grove, Utah, USA). d Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [82]. e Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [83]. f Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [84]. g Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [85]. h Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [86]. i Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [87]. j Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [88]. k Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [89]. l Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [90]. m Essential oil composition not reported; essential oil composition obtained from [91].