Table 3.

Antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, immunostimulatory and anti-parasitic bioactivities of Pheophorbide a.

Source of Pheophorbide a	Investigated Activity	Pathway Involved and Experimental Model	Active Concentration	References
Compound present in an activity fraction of Dunaliella primolecta	Antiviral	Vero cells infected with herpes simplex Type 1 and 2	10 μg mL−1	[43]
Compound present in an activity fraction of Morinda citrifolia	Antiviral	HCV cell culture system	Pheophorbide a: IC50 = 0.3 μg/mL Pyropheophorbide a: IC50 = 0.2 μg/mL	[44]
Compound present in an activity fraction of Cylindrotheca closterium	Anti-inflammatory	THP-1 monocytic leukemia cells	Fraction C: 60% of TNFα release at 100 μg/mL and 40% of TNFα release at 50 μg/mL concentration. Fraction D: 40% at 100 μg/mL, 30% at 50 μg/mL	[47]
Extract from Spinach	Anti-oxidant		150 ppm inhibition of oxidation between 70–80%	[51]
Purchase from Frontier Scientific	Immunostimulatory	MAPK pathway in RAW 264.7 cells	0–5 μM, al p > 0.05 From 24 to 72 h	[53]
Purchase from Sigma-Aldrich	Anti-parasite	Caspase3/7 Amastigotes and Promastigotes of Leishmaniasis and J774-A1 culture macrophages	Intracellular amastigotes: IC50 = 1.01 μM Promastigotes: IC50 = 17.9 μM	[56]