Table 1.

Application of hydrogels in the treatment of skin diseases.

Type of Skin Disorder	Type of Hydrogel	Agent	Animal Model/Cell Line/Microorganism	Mechanism of Action	References
Acne	adhesive hydrogel patches	Triclosan (TS)	in vitro: - female hairless mice skin (type SKH)	- antimicrobial effect of TS containing patches against P. acnes in the 0.01–0.3 wt.% concentration range in vitro - a significant increase in the amount of TS transported in hairless mouse skins	[38]
Acne vulgaris	clindamycin/tretinoin hydrogel	combination of clindamycin (1%) and tretinoin (0.025%)	clinical study: -randomized, double-blind multicenter clinical studies on male and female subjects	- greater reduction in the number of inflammatory and non-inflammatory lesions in the combined group compared to the other three treatment groups - significantly shorter response time (time to 50% reduction in the total lesion counts) - good tolerance of the fixed combination of clindamycin and tretinoin - significantly greater improvements in acne vulgaris	[61]
Acne vularis (facial)	liposomal methylene blue hydrogel	methylene blue	in vitro: - mice skin clinical study: - randomized, controlled and investigator blinded study on 13 patients	- significant reduction in the number of inflammatory and non-inflammatory acne lesions - moderate to significant improvement in acne in treated areas - no serious side effects - no edema - only slight temporary discoloration in three patients - selective delivery of BM(methylene blue) to sebaceous glands	[62]
Acne vulgaris (truncal)	liposomal methylene blue hydrogel	methylene blue	clinical study: - randomized and comparative study on 35 patients (21 males and 14 females) with varying degrees of acne vulgaris on the back	- significant reduction in the number of total, inflammatory and non-inflammatory lesions - some side effects such as pain, staining, pruritus, stinging, and flaking - greater efficiency LMB(Liposomal methylene blue)-intense pulsed light (IPL) than IPL alone	[70]
Acne vulgaris (facial)	carboxymethylcellulose-based hydrogel	resveratrol	clinical study: single-blind study on 20 patients (12 men and 8 women)	- reduction in the average area of microcomedones - decrease in inflammation and pustular lesions - no adverse effects - visible clinical improvement on the resveratrol-treated side of the face	[71]
Mycosis	hydroalcoholic hydrogel	luliconazole	in vitro: - Candida albicans (MTCC No. 183) ex vivo: - dorsal male albino Wistar rat skin	- enhancement in solubility - high skin retention - antifungal activity - increased dermal delivery	[80]
Mycosis	microemulsion-based hydrogel	bifonazole	in vitro: - Candida albicans ex vivo: - dorsal rat skin in vivo: - rabbits	- good stability of hydrogel over the period of three months - antifungal activity - sustained release of bifonazole - permeability enhancement of drug - improvement of solubility	[88]
Mycosis	dextran-based hydrogel (amphogel)	amphotericin B	in vitro: - Candida albicans in vivo: - male SV129 mice	- quick killing of fungi - no survival of fungi with amphogels - in vivo hydrogel biocompatibility - prevention of fungal infection - mitigation fungal biofilm formation	[89]
Mycosis	dextran-aldehyde hydrogel	amphotericin B	in vitro: - Candida albicansSC5314 in vivo: - SV129 mice	- effectiveness in killing fungi on contact - long-lasting antifungal activity - biocompatibility	[91]
Mycosis	bolalipid hydrogel	methylene blue	in vitro: - Saccharomyces cerevisiae	- sustained drug release - antifungal activity - excellent biocompatibility - high solidification capacity under body temperature conditions	[92]
Psoriasis	supramolecular bis-imidazolium based amphiphile hydrogels	- gemcitabine hydrochloride - methotrexate sodium salt, - tacrolimus, - betamethasone 17-valerate - triamcinolone acetonide	ex vivo: - human excised skin in vivo: - male Swiss CD-1 mice with induced inflammation and hyperplasia	- suitable viscoelastic properties of the obtained hydrogel for topical drug delivery - significant influence of contained drugs on gel morphology at the microscopic level - protection of the drug by the hydrogel against degradation, - induction of exponential drug release - promotion of the drug penetration and retention in the skin - greater reduction of hyperplasia and macroscopic tissue damage in vivo compared to drug solutions	[103]
Psoriasis	carbomer hydrogel bearing nanostructured lipid carriers	methotrexate	in vitro: - Wistar stain albino rat skin in vivo: - rabbits	- effective incorporation of the drug into nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) and solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) hydrogel structures - reduction of drug release during storage - significant reduction in skin irritation in rabbits	[112]
Psoriasis	hydrogel transformed from microemulsion using Carbopol 934	- betamethasone dipropionate - salicylic acid	in vitro: - rat abdominal skin in vivo: - Wistar rats	- sustained and good anti-inflammatory activity - good stability, powerful permeation ability. and suitable viscosity of hydrogel - sustained drug release for the desired period of time - reduced dosing frequency	[113]
Psoriasis	nanostructured lipid carrier based topical hydrogel	- mometasone furoate	in vitro: - cellulose membrane ex vivo: - Wistar rats’ abdominal skin in vivo: - BALB/c female mice	- sustained release of mometasone furoate - negligible skin irritation - marked reduction in psoriatic lesions - lesser skin blackening - significant reduction of hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, and hyperplasia	[114]
Psoriasis	hydrogel patch	-	clinical study: - men and women with plaque-type psoriasislesions	- intrinsic adhesion of the hydrogel - cooling and soothing properties - itching relief - safety and ease of use - no serious adverse events	[115]
Psoriasis	hydrogel micropatch	-	clinical study: - 100 psoriatic patients (75 men and 25 women) and 100 healthy volunteers	- the ability to analyze skin excretions using the hydrogel micropatch sampling approach combined with mass spectrometry - the possibility of using hydrogels as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for skin diseases - the ability to detect various skin biomarkers specific for psoriasis through the use of hydrogel micropatch	[116]