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Sources of ROS in disuse muscle atrophy. ROS are generated in different intracellular and extracellular locations in the muscle cell. They can be generated by NADPH oxidases (NOXs) in the sarcolemma and the sarcoplasmic reticulum, by xanthine oxidase (XO) in the skeletal muscle extracellular space, and by mitochondria. Oxidative stress is involved in both a decrease in protein synthesis and an increase in protein breakdown in disuse muscle atrophy.
