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. 2020 Apr 20;27(18):22380–22389. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-08790-5

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© The Author(s) 2020

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Fig. 1 — Caddis case cracker used to assess caddisfly case stability. We placed each case on top of two metal plates standing on edge (width 2 mm) and cracked each case by filling sand into the bucket that was connected to the lever arm. F₁ is the force at the position of the bucket while F₂ is the force that we needed to break each case