Table 1.
Preliteracy characteristics, fMRI experiment performance at the prereading stage, and reading abilities after schooling
| FHD−Typical | FHD+Typical | FHD+Impaired | Group effect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number (female/male) | 34 (16/18) | 35 (17/18) | 12 (4/8) | |
| Preliteracy characteristics | ||||
| Age (months) | 65 ± 4.3a | 66 ± 4.7a | 70 ± 5.6b | F (2,78) = 6.69** |
| CTOPP: Elision | 10 ± 2.1 | 10 ± 2.4 | 11 ± 1.8 | F (2,75) = 0.40 |
| CTOPP: Blending | 11 ± 1.9 | 11 ± 2.2 | 10 ± 1.7 | F (2,75) = 0.18 |
| CTOPP: Nonword repetition | 9.4 ± 1.6 | 9.3 ± 2.0 | 8.9 ± 2.4 | F (2,76) = 0.30 |
| RAN: Object | 104 ± 10a | 100 ± 13a | 89 ± 9.9b | F (2,71) = 5.90** |
| RAN: Color | 101 ± 13 | 96 ± 17 | 95 ± 11 | F (2,71) = 0.90 |
| WRMT‐R: Word ID | 93 ± 15 | 96 ± 22 | 85 ± 7.9 | F (2,78) = 1.47 |
| KBIT‐2: Nonverbal | 103 ± 11 | 99 ± 9.8 | 104 ± 16 | F (2,78) = 1.36 |
| CELF‐4: Core language | 113 ± 14 | 110 ± 10 | 108 ± 16 | F (2,64) = 0.75 |
| CELF‐4: Receptive language | 111 ± 13 | 104 ± 15 | 109 ± 9.1 | F (2,65) = 1.59 |
| CELF‐4: Expressive language | 114 ± 14 | 110 ± 12 | 107 ± 19 | F (2,64) = 1.12 |
| CELF‐4: Language structure | 114 ± 15 | 110 ± 11 | 107 ± 17 | F (2,63) = 1.31 |
| fMRI experiment performance at the prereading stage | ||||
| # of correct responses | 17 ± 7.2 | 17 ± 6.3 | 21 ± 4.3 | F (2,65) = 2.10 |
| Response times (seconds) | 2,336 ± 480 | 2,170 ± 422 | 2,143 ± 322 | F (2,65) = 1.34 |
| Reading abilities at the end of the first grade or later | ||||
| # of participants with latest reading performance available in each grade | ||||
| First grade | 8 | 5 | 4 | χ2 (6) = 8.0; p = .24 |
| Second grade | 17 | 16 | 5 | |
| Third grade | 1 | 8 | 1 | |
| Fourth grade | 8 | 6 | 2 | |
| Age (months) | 104 ± 14 | 108 ± 13 | 106 ± 15 | F (2,78) = 0.72 |
| WRMT‐R: Word ID | 111 ± 9.7a | 108 ± 10a | 87 ± 7.0b | F (2,76) = 28.4*** |
| WRMT‐R: Word attack | 109 ± 11a | 109 ± 10a | 96 ± 11b | F (2,76) = 8.83*** |
| TOWRE: SWE | 109 ± 13a | 104 ± 9.8a | 78 ± 8.7b | F (2,78) = 34.6*** |
| TOWRE: PDE | 104 ± 11a | 104 ± 9.6a | 86 ± 7.0b | F (2,78) = 17.1*** |
Note: Standard scores were reported for all the psychometric assessments. Due to the missing data points in each assessment, degree of freedom and significance level were adjusted accordingly.
For assessments showing significant group effects, posthoc pairwise comparisons were subsequently computed, which revealed a consistent pattern: while no significant differences were observed between the FHD+Typical and FHD−Typical children (both denoted by superscript “a”), both groups were significantly different from FHD+Impaired children (denoted by superscript “b”, p corrected < .05 after correction for multiple comparisons).
Abbreviations: CELF‐4, clinical evaluation of language fundamentals, fourth edition; CTOPP, comprehensive test of phonological processing; FHD+Impaired, children with family history of dyslexia who subsequently developed poor reading abilities; FHD−Typical, children without family history of dyslexia who subsequently developed typical reading abilities; FHD+Typical, children with family history of dyslexia who subsequently developed typical reading abilities; KBIT‐2, Kaufman brief intelligence test, second edition—nonverbal matrices; PDE, phonemic decoding efficiency; RAN, rapid automatized naming; SWE, sight word efficiency; TOWRE, test of word reading efficiency; WRMT‐R, Woodcock reading mastery tests‐revised.