Fig. 1.

Pathophysiological mechanisms of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2D). The onset of T2D and its complications can lead to an imbalance in cellular homeostasis such as enhanced oxidative stress levels due to an increase in ROS production and a decrease in levels of antioxidant defenses. This can promote ER stress, which activates the UPR (unfolded protein response) on the one hand and can increase autophagy on the other hand. CVD, cardiovascular disease; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ROS, reactive oxygen species.