TABLE 1.

Common evidence, processes, and participants and practices involved in the genetic, agronomic, and cultural drivers of de novo domestication and crop improvement.

Evidence: sources and results of domestication	Processes: iterative cycles of transmission and change in domestication	Participants and practices: major stakeholders and methods to accomplish domestication and crop improvement
Genetic
•Extant and new cultigens •Archeological remains of extinct cultigens that are morphologically distinct from wild ancestors	•Plant lifecycle from seed to seed (months to a few years) •Selection of new scions to use in grafting (decades) •Division of tubers, rhizomes (yearly) •Formal breeding cycles, gene discovery projects (months to a few years)	•Germplasm collections at gene banks, botanical gardens •Traditional landrace development by farmers through visual or unconscious selection for reduced shattering, seed dormancy •Public and private plant breeding using sexual recombination and selection •Public or private genetic engineering (cisgenic, transgenic) •Seed exchange networks and community gene banks
Agronomic
•Horticultural practices and skills •Management knowledge •Tools and technologies	•Training of children by families and communities (decades) •Formal educational degrees and certifications (years to decades) •Publication of major new books, articles (years to decades) •County fairs (yearly) •Farmer field days, conventions (yearly)	•University/government agronomy research into best practices for germination, inoculation, soil fertility, maintenance, harvest, storage, etc. •Journalistic and ethnobotanical interviews, publications •Development of integrated pest control strategies •Engineering of specialized machinery for harvesting or other agronomic activities •Formal and informal centers for agricultural education and extension •Practitioner innovation associations
Cultural
•Laws and policies •Educational practices, both formal and informal •Stories, recipes, and artworks •Values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms	•Election cycles (years) •New companies or corporate leadership (years to decades) •Social movements (years to decades)	•NGOs hosting citizen science projects •National and provincial government dietary recommendations, public health campaigns •Cultural production and circulation through art, literature, cookbooks, digital and social media •Commercial and NGO advocacy, lobbying, and marketing communications •Commodity associations funding research and marketing •Regional cuisine change through immigration, cultural diffusion, urbanization, and travel •Political parties propose policy and spending, seeking votes, contributions from special interests