Table 3.
Adjusted odds (AOR) ratios and 95% confidence (CIs) intervals for the associations of the frequency of impairments in daily activity due to overuse of the internet, gaming, or smartphone with the study covariates using multivariate logistic regression analysis
| Parameter | Participants that had used the Internet, gaming, or smartphone at least once before (N = 190,066) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mild Impairment groups (n = 13,628) | Moderate- to -severe Impairment groups (n = 8753) | |||
| AOR (95% CI)a | B (p-value) | AOR (95% CI) | B (p-value) | |
| Sociodemographic factors | ||||
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 1.317(1.278–1.357) | 324.507 (< 0.001) | 1.380(1.330–1.433) | 285.678 (< 0.001) |
| Female | 1 | 1 | ||
| Age | ||||
| 19–39 | 30.665(26.977–35.059) | 5124.570 (<.0001) | 15.436(13.745–17.410) | 4474.538 (<.0001) |
| 40–64 | 6.115(5.370–7.004) | 7.392 (0.0066) | 2.827(2.508–3.200) | 84.831 (<.0001) |
| 65 or older | 1 | 1 | ||
| Education | ||||
| No formal or Elementary school | 1 | 1 | ||
| Middle school | 2.624(2.184–3.165) | 198.499 (<.0001) | 2.195(1.840–2.626) | 101.196 (<.0001) |
| High school | 14.023(12.065–16.428) | 1687.220 (<.0001) | 8.267(7.178–9.582) | 1199.201 (<.0001) |
| College or higher | 16.257(13.992–19.036) | 2252.291 (<.0001) | 7.848(6.815–9.094) | 1070.911 (<.0001) |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married and living with a spouse | 1 | 1 | ||
| Divorced or separated or Widowed | 0.391(0.358–0.426) | 1438.133 (<.0001) | 0.451(0.406–0.500) | 871.255 (<.0001) |
| Never been married | 4.202(4.073–4.335) | 5843.150 (<.0001) | 4.423(4.256–4.597) | 3987.608 (<.0001) |
| Average monthly household income | ||||
| Lowest | 1 | 1 | ||
| Low-middle | 2.128(1.966–2.308) | 11.728 (<.0001) | 1.770(1.622–1.936) | 26.005 (<.0001) |
| Upper-middle | 2.661(2.463–2.883) | 374.574 (<.0001) | 1.978(1.814–2.160) | 143.679 (<.0001) |
| Highest | 2.931(2.711–3.176) | 650.912 (<.0001) | 1.950(1.786–2.132) | 112.336 (<.0001) |
| Occupation | ||||
| Manager, professional or administrator, clerk | 2.453(2.302–2.616) | 171.681 (<.0001) | 1.715(1.590–1.852) | 9.419 (0.0021) |
| Service worker, salesperson | 1.860(1.733–1.997) | 26.883 (<.0001) | 1.708(1.572–1.856) | 6.836 (0.0089) |
| Technician, mechanic or production worker, machine operator/assembly worker | 1.625(1.508–1.751) | 121.444 (<.0001) | 1.302(1.190–1.425) | 153.007 (<.0001) |
| Skilled agricultural/forestry/fishery worker, unskilled worker, soldier | 1 | 1 | ||
| Student | 8.645(8.035–9.307) | 4989.934 (<.0001) | 7.579(6.960–8.259) | 3564.683 (<.0001) |
| Unemployed | 1.155(1.079–1.237) | 1152.451 (<.0001) | 1.220(1.129–1.321) | 414.351 (<.0001) |
| Location of residence | ||||
| Rural (town, township) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Urban (city) | 1.507(1.442–1.575) | 329.357 (<.0001) | 1.242(1.180–1.309) | 67.792 (<.0001) |
| Smoking | ||||
| Non-smoker | 1 | 1 | ||
| Past smoker | 0.634(0.606–0.664) | 408.154 (<.0001) | 0.713(0.674–0.753) | 235.488 (<.0001) |
| Current smoker | 1.034(0.996–1.072) | 170.912 (<.0001) | 1.209(1.157–1.264) | 227.175 (<.0001) |
| Alcohol during the last year | ||||
| Yes | 2.347(2.224–2.456) | 1367.392 (<.0001) | 2.130(2.018–2.251) | 735.752 (<.0001) |
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Social relationships & activities | ||||
| Family contact (by meeting in person or calling | ||||
| ≤ 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| 2–4 times per month | 0.834(0.803–0.865) | 2.201 (0.1379) | 0.704(0.671–0.738) | 49.249 (<.0001) |
| 2–3 times per week | 0.721(0.687–0.757) | 52.659 (<.0001) | 0.725(0.683–0.769) | 17.419 (<.0001) |
| ≥ 4 times per week | 0.743(0.714–0.774) | 45.191 (<.0001) | 0.770(0.733–0.808) | 2.670 (0.1022) |
| Neighbor contact (by meeting in person or calling | ||||
| ≤ 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| 2–4 times per month | 0.851(0.816–0.887) | 281.895 (<.0001) | 0.674(0.637–0.712) | 9.269 (0.0023) |
| 2–3 times per week | 0.569(0.539–0.601) | 28.402 (<.0001) | 0.525(0.489–0.563) | 43.771 (<.0001) |
| ≥ 4 times per week | 0.342(0.324–0.361) | 867.876 (<.0001) | 0.442(0.416–0.469) | 213.733 (<.0001) |
| Friend contact (by meeting in personor calling) | ||||
| ≤ 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| 2–4 times per month | 1.409(1.351–1.469) | 0.783 (0.3761) | 1.149(1.090–1.211) | 62.563 (<.0001) |
| 2–3 times per week | 1.618(1.546–1.693) | 112.472 (<.0001) | 1.447(1.368–1.530) | 32.594 (<.0001) |
| ≥ 4 times per week | 1.653(1.585–1.725) | 176.111 (<.0001) | 1.756(1.670–1.847) | 366.367 (<.0001) |
| Religious activity | ||||
| < 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| ≥ 1 time per month | 0.653(0.629–0.678) | 502.265 (<.0001) | 0.661(0.631–0.692) | 307.693 (<.0001) |
| Friendship activity | ||||
| < 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| ≥ 1 time per month | 0.584(0.566–0.602) | 1224.633 (<.0001) | 0.540(0.520–0.561) | 1026.847 (<.0001) |
| Leisure activity | ||||
| < 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| ≥ 1 time per month | 1.200(1.164–1.238) | 135.328 (<.0001) | 1.039(0.999–1.080) | 3.690 (0.0547) |
| Charity activity | ||||
| < 1 time per month | 1 | 1 | ||
| ≥ 1 time per month | 0.686(0.644–0.729) | 142.164 (<.0001) | 0.677(0.626–0.731) | 96.597 (<.0001) |
| Psychosocial factor | ||||
| Stress | ||||
| No stress | 1 | 1 | ||
| Some stress | 1.786(1.701–1.876) | 9.987 (0.0016) | 1.304(1.232–1.382) | 194.405 (<.0001) |
| Moderate stress | 2.150(2.038–2.268) | 212.038 (<.0001) | 1.931(1.816–2.054) | 93.078 (<.0001) |
| Severe stress | 2.226(2.043–2.424) | 84.269 (<.0001) | 2.774(2.533–3.036) | 321.368 (<.0001) |
| Depressive mood | ||||
| Yes | 1.314(1.240–1.390) | 88.804 (<.0001) | 1.726(1.619–1.838) | 285.274 (<.0001) |
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Suicide ideation | ||||
| Yes | 1.062(1.000–1.127) | 3.849 (0.0498) | 1.445(1.352–1.543) | 118.844 (<.0001) |
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Suicide attempt | ||||
| Yes | 0.920(0.678–1.214) | 0.3151 (0.5746) | 2.012(1.549–2.571) | 29.325 (<.0001) |
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Health status and HRQoLb | ||||
| Hypertension | ||||
| Yes | 0.279(0.263–0.295) | 1851.115 (<.0001) | 0.323(0.301–0.346) | 1038.598 (<.0001) |
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Diabetes mellitus | ||||
| Yes | 0.262(0.238–0.288) | 744.868 (<.0001) | 0.318(0.284–0.354) | 412.470 (<.0001) |
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Subjective awareness of health status | ||||
| Very good | 7.534(6.055–9.523) | 422.341 (<.0001) | 2.854(2.395–3.430) | 170.730 (<.0001) |
| Good | 6.800(5.492–8.559) | 440.585 (<.0001) | 2.061(1.743–2.457) | 12.535 (0.0004) |
| Average | 5.836(4.714–7.346) | 229.016 (<.0001) | 2.190(1.854–2.610) | 40.467 (<.0001) |
| Poor | 3.247(2.604–4.112) | 34.758 (<.0001) | 1.908(1.603–2.291) | 0.0376 (0.8463) |
| Very poor | 1 | 1 | ||
| EQ-5D-3 L | ||||
| Total | 9.288(7.554–11.468) | 437.979 (< 0.0001) | 1.701(1.392–2.089) | 26.312 (<.0001) |
| 19–39 | 0.140(0.104–0.191) | 157.9003 (< 0.0001) | 0.024(0.017–0.033) | 482.214 (<.0001) |
| 40–64 | 0.899(0.638–1.286) | 0.3574 (0.5500) | 0.195(0.139–0.277) | 86.317 (<.0001) |
| 65 or older | 7.086(2.611–21.201) | 13.4291 (0.0002) | 1.686(0.823–3.696) | 1.8573 (0.1729) |
a Control group = no impairment group
b Health-related quality of life