TABLE 1.
Study characteristics of RCTs on breakfast skipping and body composition
| Authors, y, Country | Population | No. of Participants (% female), Intervention | Age (mean y ± SD) | BMI (mean ± SD) | No. of habitual breakfast consumers (%) | Breakfast skipping | Breakfast consumption | Adherence assessed by (% compliance) | Outcomes measured | Duration | Funding |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Betts et al., 2014 (12), United Kingdom | Lean Adults (based on DXA fat mass indexes ≥ 7.5 kg/m2 for men and ≥ 11 kg/m2 for women). | 33 (64), breakfast vs. no breakfast. | 36 ± 11 | 22.4 ± 2.2 | 26 (79) | Extended overnight fast until 1200 h daily (other than water). | Energy intake ≥ 700 kcal before 1100 h daily, with at least half consumed within 2 h of waking. Food information provided, Including amount, but no foods specified. | Self-reported by participants and verified via continuous glucose monitoring (not reported). | Body weight, BMI, % body fat, lean mass, fat mass, blood pressure, lipids, CRP, insulin, HOMA-IR, glucose, leptin, ghrelin. | 6 wk | Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council |
| Chowdhury et al. (13), 2016, United Kingdom | Adults with obesity (based on DXA fat mass indexes ≥ 9 kg/m2 for men and ≥ 13 kg/m2 for women). | 23 (65), breakfast vs. no breakfast. | 44 ± 10 | 33.7 ± 4.9 | 14 (61) | Extended overnight fast until 1200 h daily (other than water). | Energy intake ≥ 700 kcal before 1100 h daily, with at least half consumed within 2 h of waking. Food information provided, Including amount but no foods specified. | Self-reported by participants and verified via continuous glucose monitoring (not reported). | Body weight, BMI, % body fat, lean mass, fat mass, blood pressure, lipids, CRP, insulin, HOMA-IR, glucose, leptin, ghrelin. | 6 wk | Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council |
| Dhurandhar et al. (14), 2014, United States | Adults with overweight or obesity (BMI > 25 and < 45) | 185 (76), 3 groups: control, breakfast, no breakfast. | 41.6 ± 12.1 | 32.7 ± 5.2 | 108 (58) | No calories consumed until 1100 h (other than water or zero-calorie beverages). | Instructed to consume breakfast before 1000 h dally. Nutrition education pamphlet provided but no foods or amounts specified. | Reported by participants via food diary and monthly calls (93.6% consumers, 92.4% skippers). | Body weight, BMI. | 16 wk | NIDDK; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute |
| Geliebter et al. (20), 2014, United States | Adults with overweight (BMI > 25). | 36 (50%), 3 groups: no breakfast, high fiber, no fiber. | 33.9 ± 7.5 | 32.8 ± 4.7 | Not reported | Reported to center at 0830 h following overnight fast each weekday. Consumed 350 mL water of plus 200 mL of decaffeinated coffee with 12 mL of nondairy creamer and 1 g of artificial sweetener. | Reported to center at 0830 h following overnight fast each weekday. Consumed either oat porridge or frosted corn flakes plus 200 mL of decaffeinated coffee with 12 mL of nondairy creamer and 1 g of artificial sweetener. Breakfasts were provided to take home for the weekends. | Direct observation, except for weekends (not reported). | Body weight, lean mass, fat mass, blood pressure, lipids, insulin, HOMA-IR, glucose, leptin. | 4 wk | Quaker Oats Center of Excellence, PepsiCo R&D Nutrition |
| LeCheminant et al. (29), 2017, United States | Healthy adults (habitual breakfast skippers; no BMI restriction). | 49 (100), breakfast vs. no breakfast. | 23.7 ± 7.5 | 22.1 ± 3.8 | 54 (0%) | No snack or meal consumed until after 1130 h (except noncaloric beverages). | Required to eat 15% of total energy Intake within 1.5 h of awakening and had to be finished eating breakfast by 0830 h. No eating restrictions after this meal. | Reported by participants via food log (90% consumers, 98% skippers). | Body weight, BMI, % body fat, lean mass, fat mass. | 4 wk | Fulton Grant from Brigham Young University |
| Leidy et al. (28), 2015, United States | break/>Adults/adolescents with overweight/obesity (habitual breakfast skippers; BMI: 25 to 39.9). | 54 (59), | 19 ± 5.7 | 29.8 ± 4.6 | 49 (0) | Fasting until 1000 h (except for water). | Instructed to consume either normal-proteln (cereal with milk) or high-protein (egg-based dish, with pork/ham) Isocalorlc breakfasts between 0600 h and 0945 h. | Reported by participants via daily log. Breakfast meals provided to patients (98.1%). | Body weight, BMI, % body fat, lean mass, fat mass. | 12 wk | The Pork Checkoff |
| Schlundt et al. (27), 1992, United States | Women with obesity (no BMI range specified). | 45 (100), breakfast vs. no breakfast. | Not reported (18- to 55-y range). | Not reported. | 29 (59) | Instructed to eat 2 meals daily, 1,200 kcal total. Provided with bran muffins to match fiber. | Instructed to eat 3 meals per day, 1,200 kcal total. Provided with cereal for breakfast. | Reported by participants via log. Menus and cereal/bran muffins provided (97% skippers). | Body weight, % body fat. | 12 wk | None reported |
Studies are all parallel RCTs (Dhurandar, Geliebter, and Leidy studies all had 3 parallel arms).
CRP, C-reactive protein; DXA, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; RCT, randomized controlled trial.