Microstructure and chemical modifications of nanofibrous membranes. a) SEM and b) Fiber diameter distribution of PVA-co-PE membrane; c) Reaction schemes of PVA-co-PE membrane with three reagents (CC, GA, and DSC) and proteins; d) FTIR spectra of PVA-co-PE membranes before and after modifications of CC, GA, and DSC; e) SEM images and f) Fiber distributions of these nanofibrous membranes after reactions with CC, GA, and DSC; g) Water contact angles of these membranes.