Table 2.
Proteomic Studies of Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms
| Antibiotic | Pathogens | Physiological effects | Proteome Analysis | Representative References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cell wall | ||||
| Vancomycin | Enterococcus faecium | Vancomycin resistance proteins increased; metabolism-related proteins decreased | 2-DE and LC-MS/MS | [156] |
| Piperacillin/tazobactam | Escherichia coli | Bacterial virulence, antibiotic resistance, DNA protection, and multidrug efflux pump expression associated with resistance | 2D-flurorescence difference gel and electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) | [147] |
| Carbapenem | Acinetobacter baumannii | Beta-lactamases, energy, and protein production enzymes are upregulated; | 2D-DIGE | [151] |
| OmpW and surface antigen downregulated | ||||
| Penicillin | Streptococcus pyogenes | Growth phase, stress, and fatty acid biosynthesis (FAB) proteins expression altered | Two dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and tandem mass spectrometry | [148] |
| Cell membrane | ||||
| Colistin | Escherichia coli | Outer membrane proteins, chaperones, protein biosynthesis factors and metabolic enzymes | 2-DE and LC-MS/MS | [167] |
| Daptomycin | Staphylococcus aureus | Differences in biofilm formation proteins, cell wall-associated targets | iTRAQ and IPG-isoelectric focusing with LC-MS | [161] |
| Protein synthesis | ||||
| Kanamycin | Escherichia coli | Outer membrane protein expression altered. Identification of novel membrane MipA protein involved in antibiotic resistance | 2-DE and LC-MS/MS | [197] |
| Tetracycline | Acinetobacter baumannii | Outer membrane proteins decreased expression in membrane and increased secretion | 2-DE/MS-MS and 1-DE/LC/MS-MS | [190] |
| Linezolid | Streptococcus pneumoniae | Metabolism and transport of carbohydrates involved in resistance to linezolid | 2-DE and iTRAQ | [187] |
| Protein synthesis | ||||
| Chloramphenicol | Burkholderia thailandensis | Overexpression of efflux pump systems associated with resistance | SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and LC-MS/MS | [183] |
| Erythromycin | Streptococcus pneumoniae | Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase upregulation in resistant strain | 2-DE and LC-MS/MS | [201] |
| DNA synthesis | ||||
| Fluoroquinolones | Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Overexpression of ATP-binding component of ATP binding cassette (ABC) | 2-DE and LC-MS/MS | [206] |
| Metronidazole | Clostridium difficile | RecA, ferric uptake regulator (Fur), putative nitro reductases and altered expression of stress-related proteins | iTRAQ and 2D-LC-MS/MS | [212] |
| RNA synthesis | ||||
| Rifampicin | Brucella abortus | Alterations in several metabolic processes and secretion mechanisms | 2-DE and LC-MS/MS | [217] |