Table 2.

Effect of cartilage T-dECMs on chondrogenic differentiation.

dECM origin	Seeded cell type	Treatment	Results	Reference
bovine AC	bovine chondrocyte	cultured in rigid dishes coated with silicone rubber or monotonically expanded on high extension silicone rubber dishes functionalized with dECM extract	dECM supported enhanced preservation of chondrocyte phenotype and redifferentiation potential	224
bovine AC	human BMSC	treated with soluble dECM in 2D culture, pellet system or on aligned nanofibrous scaffolds; or seeded in dECM-encapsulated-GelMA hydrogels with or without exposure to TGF-β3	both dECM alone or in combination with prochondrogenic factors promoted chondrogenic differentiation	22
bovine AC	human BMSC	suspended in dECM hydrogels with or without methacrylate and cultured in chondrogenic medium for up to 42 days	functionalization of pepsin-soluble dECM hydrogels compromised chondroinductivity, did not enhance BMSC chondrogenesis	88
bovine AC	rabbit BMSC	loaded onto dECMs to repair cartilage defects in a rabbit model	significantly improved the repair of cartilage defects after 12 weeks of implantation	55
bovine EC	human BMSC	seeded on dECMs and cultured in chondrogenic medium	supported chondrogenic differentiation	71
bovine meniscus	human BMSC	treated with urea-soluble extracts of dECMs from inner and outer meniscal regions in 2D culture; or culture in 3D dECM-GelMA hydrogels with chondrogenic induction	supported fibrochondrogenic differentiation in 2D culture; accelerated chondrogenic differentiation by the addition of soluble dECM fractions onto GelMA hydrogels	72
equine AC	equine chondrocyte and BMSC	seeded onto physically prepared dECM with chondrogenic induction	supported chondrogenic differentiation; BMSCs significantly outperformed chondrocytes in producing cartilaginous matrix	225
equine AC	equine BMSC	embedded in dECM particles and GelMA hydrogels with chondrogenic induction followed by subcutaneous implantation into a rat model	stimulated in vitro cartilage formation, but subsequently remodeled into endochondral bone formation in vivo	226
equine AC	human BMSC	seeded onto dECMs and cultured in chondrogenic medium followed by subcutaneous implantation into immunocompromised rats	supported in vitro chondrogenesis, but formed in vivo ectopic endochondral bone	227
human AC	canine chondrogenic BMSC	seeded onto dECMs and cultured in vitro for 3 days and then implanted subcutaneously in nude mice for 4 weeks	supported chondrogenic differentiation in vitro and formed cartilage-like tissues in vivo	27
human AC	human SDSC	grown on dECM-collagen constructs with or without treatment of growth factors (TGF-β3 and BMP-2)	promoted chondrogenesis and synergistically enhanced by growth factor induction	70
human AC	rabbit ADSC	seeded onto dECMs with chondrogenic induction followed by implantation to repair rabbit cartilage defects	supported in vitro cartilage formation and high-quality in vivo cartilage repair	80
human donor trachea	human epithelial cell and BMSC-derived-chondrocytes from recipient	colonized on dECMs to replace recipient’s left main bronchus after 5-year follow-up	produced engineered airway without risk of rejection	82
human donor trachea	human epithelial cell and BMSC derived chondrocyte from recipient	colonized on dECMs to replace recipient’s left main bronchus after 5-year follow-up	supported the re-population of the implanted airway matrix	81
porcine NSC	human nasal chondrocyte	seeded on dECMs and cultured in chondrocyte induction medium	supported chondrogenic differentiation	60
porcine NSC	human nasal septal chondrocyte	seeded on dECMs and cultured in chondrocyte induction medium	supported chondrocyte differentiation	194
porcine AC	human ADSC	seeded on physically prepared dECM without exogenous growth factors	promoted chondrogenic differentiation without exogenous growth factors	56
porcine AC	human ADSC	seeded on physically prepared dECM-PCL composite scaffolds in a culture medium	promoted ASC differentiation and chondrogenesis in vitro	228
porcine AC	human ADSC	seeded on to the genipin-crosslinked physically prepared dECM in culture medium without exogenous growth factors	crosslinked scaffold using the 0.05% genipin solution supported chondrogenic differentiation in vitro culture	220
porcine AC	human ADSC	Seeded on physically prepared dECM-PCL scaffolds with chondrogenic induction	enhanced chondrogenesis in vitro	229
porcine AC	human and porcine chondrocyte	seeded onto physically prepared dECM in a culture medium	supported chondrogenesis in the absence of exogenous growth factors	221
porcine AC	human ADSC and BMSC	seeded on physically prepared dECM in a chondrogenic medium consisting TGF-β3 and BMP-6	supported chondrogenic differentiation	230
porcine AC	human BMSC	seeded on physically prepared dECM with various crosslinking treatments followed in chondrogenic induction containing human TGF-β3	supported significant chondrogenic differentiation	231
porcine AC	human BMSC	seeded on dECM hemisphere scaffolds and cultured in chondrogenic medium	supported chondrogenic differentiation and prevented hypertrophy	76
porcine AC	human FPSC	encapsulated into physically prepared dECM functionalized fibrin hydrogels followed by culture in chondrogenic medium or seeded on physically prepared dECM functionalized fibrin hydrogels followed by implantation in nude mice	supported robust chondrogenesis in vitro and in vivo in the presence of TGF-β3	13
porcine AC	human IPFSC	seeded on physically prepared dECM with chondrogenic induction	promoted robust chondrogenesis in the presence of TGF-β3	58
porcine AC	human IPFSC	seeded onto physically prepared dECM with chondrogenic induction containing TGF-β3	supported greater chondrogenesis within the scaffolds fabricated using 250 mg/mL cartilage slurry concentrations in vitro	57
porcine AC	porcine IPFSC	seeded onto a TGF-β3 eluting physically prepared dECM followed by implantation into nude mice	supported cartilage-like tissue formation in vivo	57
porcine AC	human IPFSC	seeded on dECMs and cultured chondrogenically under either static or rotational conditions for 10 days	supported chondrogenic differentiation	74
porcine AC (immature and mature)	human IPFSC	seeded on dECMs and cultured in chondrogenic medium	supported cartilage formation in vitro	222
porcine AC	rabbit BMSC	seeded onto dECM scaffolds and cultured in chondrogenic media for 7 weeks followed by implantation to treat rabbit tracheal defects	produced neocartilage and reconstructed partial tracheal defects	232
porcine AC	rat BMSC	seeded on DCC-encapsulated or coated PLGA microspheres and cultured for 6 weeks	DCC-encapsulated scaffolds induced chondrogenesis better than TGF-β encapsulated and DCC-coated scaffolds	233
porcine AC	rat BMSC	cultured on MeHA hydrogel incorporating with DVC and DCC microparticles followed with or without exposure to TGF-β3 over a 6-week culture period	DVC was superior to DCC in chondroinductivity and rheological performance of hydrogel precursors	59
porcine AC	rat BMSC	encapsulated in MeSDCC hydrogels and cultured without growth factors for 6 weeks	supported chondrogenic differentiation	234
porcine EC	porcine newborn chondrocyte	seeded on dECM sheets by stacking 20 layers and cultured for 4 weeks followed by either continuing 12-week culture or subcutaneous implantation into nude mice for 12 weeks	supported the formation of cartilage-like tissues both in vitro and in vivo	77
porcine EC	porcine newborn BMSC	seeded on dECM sheets by stacking 20 layers and cultured with or without chondrogenic factors followed by implantation into nude mice for another 4 weeks	promoted chondrogenic differentiation, further enhanced by chondrogenic factors	78
porcine hemi larynx	human BMSC	seeded onto dECMs and implanted into a sternomastoid muscle fascial pocket for 1 month, and then covered with a tissue-engineered oral mucosal sheet for relocating into a full-thickness defect in cricoid cartilage of immune-suppressed pig	remodeled in vivo cartilage by initiation of chondrogenesis	83
porcine meniscus	human chondrocyte/ BMSC	chondrocytes seeded on dECMs and BMSCs seeded on dECMs with chondrogenic induction	promoted chondrogenic differentiation	73
porcine NP	human ADSC	seeded on dECM hydrogels with or without chondrogenic induction	supported differentiation toward an NP-like cell phenotype, further enhanced by chondrogenic induction	85
porcine NSC	rat nasal septum chondrocyte	seeded on dECMs and implanted to repair nasal septum defects in a rat model	supported cartilage defect repair	79
porcine trachea	BM MNC and epithelial cell	seeded on dECMs and conditioned with growth and regenerative factors followed by implantation to replace recipients’ cervical trachea	supported in vivo cartilage regeneration of transplanted trachea	235
rabbit trachea	rabbit ADSC	seeded onto dECMs to replace rabbit recipient tracheas	autologous cell treatment generated tracheas to repair tracheal injuries	236
rabbit trachea	rabbit chondrocyte	seeded onto dECMs and cultured for 2 weeks followed by either maintaining for another 6 weeks or subcutaneously implanting into nude mice for 12 weeks	regenerated tubular cartilage	84

Abbreviations:2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; AC: articular cartilage; ADSC: adipose derived stem cell; BM MNC: bone marrow (BM) mononuclear cell; BMP: bone morphogenetic protein; BMSC: bone marrow stromal cell; DCC: chemically decellularized cartilage particles; dECM: decellularized extracellular matrix; DVC: physically devitalized cartilage particles; EC: ear cartilage; ECM: extracellular matrix; GelMA: methacrylated gelatin; IPFSC: infrapatellar fat pad derived stem cell; MeHA: methacrylated hyaluronic acid; MeSDCC: methacrylated solubilized decellularized cartilage; NP: nucleus pulposus; NSC: nasal septal cartilage; PCL: poly(ε-caprolactone); SDSC: synovium derived stem cell; TGF: transforming growth factor.