Figure 2.

Anterior views of a normal and three degenerative three‐dimensional nonlinear finite element models of the lumbar spine (L₃–S₁). (A) Normal model: material properties (no degeneration), normal disc height (no degeneration), no anterior osteophytes. (B) Mild degeneration: material properties (mild degeneration), 20% reduction in disc height, anterior osteophyte size representing 10%. (C) Moderate degeneration: material properties (moderate degeneration), 40% reduction in disc height, anterior osteophyte size representing 20%. (D) Severe degeneration: material properties (severe degeneration), 60% reduction in disc height, anterior osteophytes size representing 30%.