. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Feb 1.

Published in final edited form as: Dev Psychopathol. 2020 Aug;32(3):1113–1137. doi: 10.1017/S0954579419001214

Table 7.

Autoregressive, cross-lagged, and contemporaneous associations between mother and father control and child internalizing behavior across 12 cultures separated into low, average, and high control groups

Group Predictors/correlates	Low control group		Average control group		High control group
Group Predictors/correlates	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE
Predictors/correlates of Age 8 Child Internalizing Behavior
Age 8 Mother Control ^†	.06^*	.03	.05^*	.02	.05^*	.02
Age 8 Father Control	.13^**	.04	.07	.09	.02	.04
Predictors/correlates of Age 8 Mother Control
Age 8 Child Internalizing Behavior ^†	.06^*	.03	.05^*	.02	.05^*	.02
Age 8 Father Control ^†	.40^**	.03	.42^**	.04	.38^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 8 Father Control
Age 8 Child Internalizing Behavior	.13^**	.04	.07	.09	.02	.04
Age 8 Mother Control ^†	.40^**	.03	.42^**	.04	.38^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 9 Child Internalizing Behavior
Age 8 Mother Control ^†	.04	.02	.04	.03	.04	.02
Age 8 Father Control¹ ^†	−.03^*	.02	−.02^*	.01	−.03^*	.01
Age 8 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.59^**	.02	.64^**	.04	.63^**	.02
Age 9 Mother Control ^†	.08^**	.03	.07^**	.03	.07^**	.03
Age 9 Father Control	.10^*	.04	−.06	.09	−.02	.04
Predictors/correlates of Age 9 Mother Control
Age 8 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.09^**	.03	.11^**	.03	.11^**	.03
Age 8 Mother Control	.42^**	.03	.21^*	.09	.34^**	.03
Age 9 Father Control ^†	.39^**	.03	.40^**	.04	.35^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 9 Father Control
Age 8 Internalizing Behavior	.06	.04	.05	.10	.10^*	.04
Age 8 Father Control	.40^**	.03	.03	.10	.37^**	.04
Predictors/correlates of Age 10 Child Internalizing Behavior
Age 9 Mother Control	.14^**	.03	.07	.07	.02	.03
Age 9 Father Control¹ ^†	−.03^*	.02	−.02^*	.01	−.03^*	.02
Age 9 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.50^**	.03	.48^**	.04	.57^**	.03
Age 10 Mother Control ^†	.07^**	.03	.07^*	.03	.01	.04
Age 10 Father Control	.06	.04	−.03	.08	.07^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 10 Mother Control
Age 9 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.14^**	.03	.15^**	.03	.15^**	.03
Age 9 Mother Control ^†	.35^**	.03	.34^**	.04	.34^**	.03
Age 10 Father Control ^†	.43^**	.03	.47^**	.04	.42^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 10 Father Control
Age 9 Internalizing Behavior	.12^**	.04	−.06	.10	.13^**	.04
Age 9 Father Control ^†	.34^**	.03	.33^**	.04	.36^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 12 Child Internalizing Behavior
Age 10 Mother Control ^†	−.05^*	.03	−.05^*	.03	−.05^*	.02
Age 10 Father Control¹ ^†	−.03^*	.01	−.03^*	.01	−.02^*	.01
Age 10 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.51^**	.03	.58^**	.05	.46^**	.03
Age 12 Mother Control ^†	.06^*	.03	.07^*	.03	.06^*	.03
Age 12 Father Control	.10^*	.04	−.15	.10	−.02	.04
Predictors/correlates of Age 12 Mother Control
Age 10 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.04	.03	.05	.03	.05	.03
Age 10 Mother Control	.30^**	.04	.33^**	.09	.14^**	.04
Age 12 Father Control ^†	.39^**	.03	.34^**	.04	.38^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 12 Father Control
Age 10 Internalizing Behavior	.17^**	.04	.23^*	.10	−.05	.05
Age 10 Father Control ^†	.26^**	.03	.21^**	.03	.26^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 13 Child Internalizing Behavior
Age 12 Mother Control ^†	.01	.03	.01	.03	.01	.02
Age 12 Father Control¹ ^†	−.03^*	.01	−.03^*	.01	−.02^*	.01
Age 12 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.57^**	.03	.51^**	.05	.53^**	.03
Age 13 Mother Control ^†	.13^**	.04	.13^**	.04	.10^**	.03
Age 13 Father Control	.05	.06	−.07	.13	−.01	.06
Predictors/correlates of Age 13 Mother Control
Age 12 Internalizing Behavior ^†	.00	.03	.00	.03	.00	.03
Age 12 Mother Control ^†	.44^**	.03	.43^**	.04	.40^**	.03
Age 13 Father Control ^†	.13^**	.04	.12^**	.04	.10^**	.03
Predictors/correlates of Age 13 Father Control
Age 12 Internalizing Behavior	−.01	.05	−.12	.12	.05	.05
Age 12 Father Control ^†	.44^**	.04	.44^**	.05	.38^**	.03

Note:

^**

p < .01,

p <. 05.

^†

Indicates paths constrained to be equal over low, average, and high control cultural groups.

Numbered superscripts indicate paths constrained to be equal over time. Covariates (gender, father education, and mother education) were controlled for in all analyses but not presented here for simplicity of presentation (available from first author). Cultural groups in the low control group (significantly below average control compared to the overall sample mean) include US European Americans, China, Thailand, Sweden, and Jordan. Cultural groups in the average control group (not significantly different compared to the overall sample mean) include the Philippines. Cultural groups in the high control group (significantly above average control compared to the overall sample mean) include US African Americans, US Hispanic Americans, Kenya, Rome-Italy, Naples-Italy, and Colombia.