Table 1.
Summary of descriptions for the characterization of the plantaris muscle and plantar aponeurosis as well as classification of locomotor behaviour among primates.
| Species | Character state | Plantar aponeurosis general descriptionsc | Locomotor behaviourd | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plantaris musclea | Lateral partb | Central partb | |||||||||
| n | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | S‐P | T‐A | ||
| Hominidae | |||||||||||
| Gorilla gorilla gorilla e | 6 | Loth (1908), Straus (1930), Diogo, (2011), Wareing (2016), Payne et al. (2006) | Loth (1908), Wareing (2016), Straus (1930) | Loth (1908), Wareing (2016), Straus (1930) | Raven (1936), Sarmiento (1994) | Suspensory | Terrestrial | ||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Homo sapiens e | 50 | Loth (1908), Langdon (1990) | Loth (1908), Stecco et al. (2013) | Loth (1908), Stecco et al. (2013) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Pan troglodytes troglodytes e | 11 | Loth (1908)f, Wareing (2016), Diogo (2013b), Thorpe et al. (1999), Carlson (2006) | Loth (1908)f, Wareing (2016), Thorpe et al. (1999), Carlson (2006) | Loth (1908), Wareing (2016) | Loth (1908), Wareing (2016) | Raven (1936) | Suspensory | Terrestrial | |||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013), Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Pan paniscus | 4 | Wareing (2016), Payne et al. (2006), Vereecke et al. (2005) | Wareing (2016), Vereecke et al. (2005) | Wareing (2016), Vereecke et al. (2005) | Suspensory | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013), Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Pongo pygmaeus e | 4 | Loth (1908)g, Payne et al. (2006) | Loth (1908)g, Diogo et al. (2013a), Langdon (1990) | Loth (1908), Wareing (2016), Sarmiento (1994) | Loth (1908), Wareing (2016), Sarmiento (1994) | Suspensory | Arboreal | ||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013), Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Hylobatidae | |||||||||||
| Hylobates muelleri | 3 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Hirasaki and Kumakura (2010) | Suspensory | Arboreal | ||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Hylobates lar | 2 | Vereecke et al. (2005), Payne et al. (2006) | Vereecke et al. (2005) | Vereecke et al. (2005) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Symphalangus syndactylus | 11 | Loth (1908), Langdon (1990), Channon et al. (2009) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Nomascus leucogenys | 1 | Vereecke et al. (2005) | Vereecke et al. (2005) | Vereecke et al. (2005) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Cercopithecidae | |||||||||||
| Cercocebus torquatus atys | 3 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Chlorocebus pygerythrus | 3 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Chlorocebus sabaeus e | 4 | Loth (1908), Keith (1894) | Loth (1908), Keith (1894) | Loth (1908), Keith (1894) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Colobus vellerosus | 1 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Erythrocebus patas | 4 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Macaca arctoides | 1 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Macaca fascicularis | 6 | Loth (1908), Langdon (1990), Sefczek and Dunham (2014) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Sefczek and Dunham (2014) | Propulsive | Arboreal | ||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Macaca maura | 3 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Macaca mulatta | 4 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908), Stilwell (1957), Herrel (2019)p.c. | Loth (1908), Stilwell (1957), Herrel 2019p.c. | Hartman et al. (1933) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | ||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Macaca nemestrina | 6 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Macaca sinica | 4 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Mandrillus sphinx | 4 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Papio anubis | 5 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908), Herrel (2019)p.c., Berillon (2019)p.c. | Loth (1908), Herrel (2019)p.c., Berillon (2019)p.c. | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Papio cynocephalus | 2 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Swindler & Wood (1973) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | ||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Papio hamadryas | 5 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Papio papio | 7 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908), Herrel (2019)p.c. | Loth (1908), Herrel (2019)p.c. | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Presbytis melalophos | 3 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Semnopithecus entellus | 4 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Terrestrial | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Trachypithecus cristatus | 2 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Cebidae | |||||||||||
| Cebus albifrons | 2 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Sapajus apella | 1 | Loth (1908), Langdon (1990) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Gosselin‐Ildari (2013) | |||||||||||
| Cebus capucinus | 1 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | |||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Callithrix jacchus | 7 | Loth (1908) | Langdon (1990) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Propulsive | Arboreal | ||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Atelidae | |||||||||||
| Alouatta seniculus | 1 | Loth (1908), Langdon (1990), Sarmiento (1983) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Ateles paniscus | 2 | Loth (1908), Langdon (1990) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Lemuridae | |||||||||||
| Eulemur fulvus fulvus | 1 | Loth (1908), Murie and Mivart (1869) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Gebo (2005) | Propulsive | Arboreal | ||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Eulemur macaco macaco | 1 | Loth (1908), Murie and Mivart (1869) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Gebo (2005) | Suspensory | Arboreal | ||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Eulemur mongoz | 1 | Loth (1908), Murie and Mivart (1869) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Gebo (2005) | Propulsive | Arboreal | ||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Varecia variegata variegata | 2 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Rowe et al. (1999) | |||||||||||
| Galagidae | |||||||||||
| Galago gallarum | 2 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Aerts (1998) | Propulsive | Arboreal | ||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
| Lorisidae | |||||||||||
| Loris tardigradus | 5 | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Loth (1908) | Suspensory | Arboreal | |||||
| Fleagle (2013) | |||||||||||
In total, 40 primate species of eight primate families were included into the analysis.
a
The plantaris muscle was coded into three states: plantaris muscle absent (0), plantaris muscle present, smoothly passing beneath the calcaneal bone to blend with the plantar aponeurosis (1) and plantaris muscle present, being bound to or inserting into the calcaneal bone with little to no further connection to the plantar aponeurosis (2).
b
The lateral and central band of the plantar aponeurosis were coded into two states: well‐defined, parallel‐oriented fibres absent (0) and present (1).
c
Character state reported, but details as provided by Loth (1908) are not given.
d
Locomotor behaviour was characterized by the two categories ‘suspensory’ or ‘propulsive’ (S‐P) and ‘terrestrial’ or ‘arboreal’.
e
Complete confirmation (all characters) of descriptions provided by Loth (1908).
f
Presence of the plantaris muscle in chimpanzee is quite variable: 54.3% present (Loth, 1908).
g
Presence of the plantaris muscle in orangutan is quite variable: 3.7% present (Loth, 1908).
p.c.
, personal communication.