TABLE 1.
DIFFerentiation framework used to support coaches teaching behaviors in the linear and non-linear pedagogy SAMPLE-PE curriculums.
| Linear pedagogy | Non-linear pedagogy | ||||
| General assumptions (‘DIFFerentitaion’) | Children in the autonomous and associative stage of learning | Children in the cognitive stage of learning | General assumptions (‘DIFFerentitaion’) | High motor competence children | Low motor competence children |
| (Fitts and Posner, 1973) | (Newell, 1986) | ||||
| Demonstration Isolated demonstrations of a motor skill by an adult or competent child is to be promoted as it offers a unique opportunity for learners to gather information about appropriate coordination patterns which could benefit performance. (Shea et al., 1999) | Demonstration provided after practice of a task lead to stronger retention of learning than demonstration prior practice (Blandin et al., 1999) | Demonstration of a skill by an individual presenting high proficiency is beneficial for motor learning. (Blandin et al., 1999) | Demonstration Adult demonstration is avoided as NLP encourages more than one optimal way to move in a functional manner. (Williams and Hodges, 2005; Chow et al., 2016) | No demonstration is given as NLP suggests that it is more or less redundant as they are at the level where further demonstration will no longer provide them with useful information. (Chow et al., 2016) | A few highly competent children to demonstrate the movement in context so that the observing moderate to low competent children can see what they could do within their own movement. (Chow et al., 2016) |
| Instruction The use of instruction should have both an internal (skill focus) and external focus of attention is allowed. (Beilock et al., 2002; Wulf, 2007) | Verbal instructions should focus on movement outcomes rather than on the movements required by the task. (Beilock et al., 2002) | A skill focus instruction is encourage to support early acquisition of the skill as it has been found to be more effective in skill execution. (Beilock et al., 2002) | Instruction The use of instruction is not encouraged if it is needed it should be short and not be prescriptive. Instead coaches were encouraged create games, scenarios and to manipulate task constraints to promote skills being learnt implicitly. | Use of questioning and external focus as it allows children to problem solve toward a movement solution. (Chow et al., 2016) Coach use STEP framework to manipulate task constraints | If the child has no previous experience of the motor skill, the use of analogies can help as it chunks a large amount of information together that frees up mental capacity providing an external focus of attention. (Chow et al., 2016) |
| Feedback and Frequency Feedback is a powerful tool in the coaches toolbox and should be used at the coaches discretion based on their judgment of a child’s motor competence. Feedback can either take the shape of knowledge of results or knowledge of performance. (Sherwood, 1988; Sullivan et al., 2008) | Feedback should be provided only when error are large enough to warrant attention. (Sherwood, 1988) | Providing verbal feedback after each trial or as much as possible during early stages of acquisition is a priority (Sullivan et al., 2008) Practitioner should identify the component of the skills that needs to be learned, determine which is most critical for learning and prioritize feedback about the critical component of the task though this should not happen after every trial. (Weeks and Kordus, 1998) | Feedback and Frequency Feedback should focus on children finding different movement solutions. Feedback is kept to a minimum and only used when children get stuck or to create instability in movement pattern. | External feedback should only be given if they miss the mark. If they achieve the desired outcome, feedback is not necessary (Hodges and Franks, 2001) | Feedback should never be corrective. The coaches feedback should be minimal and if used should promote an external focus of attention. As with instructions analogies can be useful to support learning. Coaches can also utilize STEP framework to manipulate task constraints (Chow et al., 2016) |