Table 1.
Biomass fuel status (all study households) by respiratory outcome measures (frequency, percentage).
| Shortness of Breath (N = 12,161) | Fever (N = 12,179) |
Cough (N = 12,163) |
ARI (N = 12,145) |
Severe ARI (N = 11,967) |
|||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No (N = 10,137) n (%) | Yes (N = 2024) n (%) | p Value | No (N = 8207) n (%) | Yes (N = 3972) n (%) | p Value | No (N = 7385) n (%) | Yes (N = 4778) n (%) | p Value | No (N = 10414) n (%) | Yes (N = 1731) n (%) | p Value | No (N = 10937) n (%) | Yes (N = 1030) n (%) | p Value | |
| Household cooking fuel | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.412 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| Charcoal | 2315 (22.8) | 345 (17.0) | 2044 (24.9) | 624 (15.7) | 1595 (21.6) | 1062 (22.2) | 2360 (22.7) | 294 (17.0) | 2482 (22.7) | 147 (14.3) | |||||
| Wood | 7822 (77.2) | 1679 (83.0) | 6163 (75.1) | 3348 (84.3) | 5790 (78.4) | 3716 (77.8) | 8054 (77.3) | 1437 (83.0) | 8455 (77.3) | 883 (85.7) | |||||
| Child age (months) | <0.001 | 0.022 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| 0–11 | 2183 (26.1) | 516 (29.5) | 1893 (28.1) | 809 (23.9) | 1669 (27.7) | 1031 (25.1) | 2272 (26.4) | 427 (28.4) | 2417 (26.6) | 241 (27.1) | |||||
| 12–23 | 1799 (21.5) | 435 (24.9) | 1377 (20.4) | 860 (25.4) | 1212 (20.1) | 1023 (24.9) | 1854 (21.5) | 378 (25.2) | 1955 (21.6) | 234 (26.3) | |||||
| 24–35 | 1951 (23.3) | 435 (24.9) | 1540 (22.8) | 847 (25.0) | 1379 (22.9) | 1006 (24.5) | 2001 (23.2) | 382 (25.4) | 2128 (23.5) | 223 (25.1) | |||||
| 36–47 | 2068 (24.7) | 323 (18.5) | 1629 (24.2) | 766 (22.6) | 1470 (24.4) | 922 (22.5) | 2107 (24.5) | 280 (18.6) | 2184 (24.1) | 171 (19.2) | |||||
| 48–59 | 369 (4.4) | 40 (2.3) | 305 (4.5) | 103 (3.0) | 285 (4.7) | 124 (3.0) | 373 (4.3) | 35 (2.3) | 386 (4.3) | 20 (2.2) | |||||
| Child sex | 0.031 | 0.142 | 0.445 | 0.100 | 0.010 | ||||||||||
| Male | 5003 (49.4) | 1052 (52.0) | 4047 (49.3) | 2015 (50.7) | 3654 (49.5) | 2398 (50.2) | 5150 (49.5) | 893 (51.6) | 5402 (49.4) | 552 (53.6) | |||||
| Birth order | 0.773 | <0.001 | 0.054 | 0.687 | 0.024 | ||||||||||
| Not first born | 8013 (79.0) | 1613 (79.7) | 6416 (78.2) | 3220 (81.1) | 5843 (79.1) | 3783 (79.2) | 8240 (79.1) | 1377 (79.5) | 8628 (78.9) | 837 (81.3) | |||||
| Mode of delivery ¥ | 0.002 | <0.001 | 0.177 | 0.006 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| Caesarean delivery | 596 (5.9) | 84 (4.2) | 525 (6.4) | 156 (3.9) | 168 (2.3) | 79 (1.7) | 607 (5.9) | 73 (4.2) | 641 (5.9) | 34 (3.3) | |||||
| Birth weight (kg) ¥ | 0.580 | 0.024 | 0.208 | 0.312 | 0.642 | ||||||||||
| Median (IQR) | 3.3 (3.0, 3.8) |
3.3 (2.9, 3.9) |
3.2 (3.0, 3.8) |
3.3 (3.0, 4.0) |
3.2 (3.0, 3.8) |
3.3 (3.0, 3.9) |
3.3 (3.0, 3.8) |
3.2 (2.9, 3.9) |
3.3 (3.0, 3.8) |
3.2 (2.9, 3.9) |
|||||
| Weight/Height Z score ¥ | 0.704 | 0.075 | 0.478 | 0.785 | 0.625 | ||||||||||
| Median (IQR) | 19 (−54, 86) | 24 (−62, 92) | 22 (−51, 90) | 18 (−63, 83) | 20 (−52, 90) | 22 (−58, 85) | 20 (−55, 86) | 24 (−63, 92) | 21 (−53, 87) | 23 (−70, 92) | |||||
| Vitamin A supplementation in the last 6 months ¥ | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| No | 4544 (45.1) | 747 (37.1) | 3780 (46.4) | 1514 (38.3) | 3546 (48.4) | 1744 (36.7) | 4672 (45.1) | 613 (35.6) | 4855 (44.7) | 345 (33.7) | |||||
| Iron supplementation¥ | 0.173 | 0.002 | 0.806 | 0.179 | 0.003 | ||||||||||
| No | 9425 (93.7) | 1873 (92.9) | 7652 (94.1) | 3660 (92.6) | 6854 (93.6) | 4447 (93.5) | 9687 (93.7) | 1600 (92.8) | 10186 (93.8) | 938 (91.4) | |||||
| Breastfeeding status | <0.001 | 0.037 | <0.001 | 0.131 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| Ever breastfed | 9923 (97.9) | 1990 (98.3) | 8031 (97.9) | 3901 (98.2) | 4760 (64.5) | 2949 (61.7) | 10194 (97.9) | 1704 (98.4) | 10710 (97.9) | 1015 (98.5) | |||||
| Maternal age (years) | 0.019 | 0.086 | 0.029 | 0.020 | 0.719 | ||||||||||
| 15–24 | 3377 (33.3) | 692 (34.2) | 2721 (33.2) | 1358 (34.2) | 2444 (33.1) | 1625 (34.0) | 3459 (33.2) | 601 (34.7) | 3660 (33.5) | 348 (33.8) | |||||
| 25–35 | 4976 (49.1) | 1028 (50.8) | 4109 (50.1) | 1906 (48.0) | 3620 (49.0) | 2387 (50.0) | 5125 (49.2) | 873 (50.4) | 5384 (49.2) | 514 (49.9) | |||||
| 36–49 | 1784 (17.6) | 304 (15.0) | 1377 (16.8) | 708 (17.8) | 1321 (17.9) | 766 (16.0) | 1830 (17.6) | 257 (14.8) | 1893 (17.3) | 168 (16.3) | |||||
| Maternal level of education | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.029 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| No education | 1271 (12.5) | 322 (15.9) | 1033 (12.6) | 560 (14.1) | 988 (13.4) | 605 (12.7) | 1312 (12.6) | 281 (16.2) | 1390 (12.7) | 179 (17.4) | |||||
| Primary | 6315 (62.3) | 1245 (61.5) | 4932 (60.1) | 2642 (66.5) | 4634 (62.7) | 2927 (61.3) | 6488 (62.3) | 1061 (61.3) | 6773 (61.9) | 663 (64.4) | |||||
| Secondary/Higher | 2551 (25.2) | 457 (22.6) | 2242 (27.3) | 770 (19.4) | 1763 (23.9) | 1246 (26.1) | 2614 (25.1) | 389 (22.5) | 2774 (25.4) | 188 (18.3) | |||||
| Household wealth index | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.021 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| Lowest | 2512 (24.8) | 638 (31.5) | 1833 (22.3) | 1318 (33.2) | 1920 (26.0) | 1232 (25.8) | 2595 (24.9) | 554 (32.0) | 2716 (24.8) | 382 (37.1) | |||||
| Middle | 1977 (19.5) | 380 (18.8) | 1618 (19.7) | 744 (18.7) | 1432 (19.4) | 928 (19.4) | 2037 (19.6) | 318 (18.4) | 2146 (19.6) | 168 (16.3) | |||||
| Highest | 1697 (16.7) | 224 (11.1) | 1561 (19.0) | 361 (9.1) | 1140 (15.4) | 778 (16.3) | 1721 (16.5) | 193 (11.1) | 1813 (16.6) | 86 (8.3) | |||||
| Household smoking status | 0.427 | 0.839 | 0.706 | 0.672 | 0.293 | ||||||||||
| Yes | 1326 (13.1) | 278 (13.7) | 1078 (13.1) | 527 (13.3) | 982 (13.3) | 624 (13.1) | 1369 (13.1) | 234 (13.5) | 1434 (13.1) | 147 (14.3) | |||||
| Household cooking location ¥ | 0.631 | <0.001 | 0.041 | 0.082 | 0.333 | ||||||||||
| Indoors | 7648 (75.5) | 1505 (74.6) | 6103 (74.4) | 3051 (77.0) | 982 (13.3) | 624 (13.1) | 7865 (75.6) | 1274 (73.7) | 8241 (75.4) | 754 (73.3) | |||||
| Number of household members | 0.513 | <0.001 | 0.062 | 0.422 | 0.018 | ||||||||||
| 1–4 | 2988 (29.5) | 585 (28.9) | 2511 (30.6) | 1078 (27.1) | 2129 (28.8) | 1446 (30.3) | 3060 (29.4) | 505 (29.2) | 3252 (29.7) | 263 (25.5) | |||||
| 5–8 | 5358 (52.9) | 1097 (54.2) | 4350 (53.0) | 2110 (53.1) | 3921 (53.1) | 2538 (53.1) | 5511 (52.9) | 940 (54.3) | 5780 (52.8) | 575 (55.8) | |||||
| 9–27 | 1791 (17.7) | 342 (16.9) | 1346 (16.4) | 784 (19.7) | 1335 (18.1) | 794 (16.6) | 1843 (17.7) | 286 (16.5) | 1905 (17.4) | 192 (18.6) | |||||
| Survey season | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.097 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| Wet | 4075 (40.2) | 770 (38.0) | 3284 (40.0) | 1565 (39.4) | 3068 (41.5) | 1776 (37.2) | 1945 (18.7) | 271 (15.7) | 4373 (40.0) | 396 (38.4) | |||||
| Place of residence | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.068 | 0.003 | <0.001 | ||||||||||
| Urban | 1913 (18.9) | 306 (15.1) | 1748 (21.3) | 472 (11.9) | 1310 (17.7) | 910 (19.0) | 1945 (18.7) | 271 (15.7) | 2055 (18.8) | 142 (13.8) | |||||
N = total number of observations, n = Number of observation for categorical variables % = column percentages for categorical variables, Median = Continuous variable median, IQR = Interquartile Range, p value = Chi-Squared for categorical variables, and Kruskal Wallis for Continuous variables. ¥ contains missing observations; Received Vitamin A = 84 (0.7%); Birth weight = 3750 (30.8%); Height/Weight = 9900 (81.3%); Cooking location = 17 (0.1%); Mode of delivery = 49 (0.4%); Taking iron supplements = 90 (0.7%-Fever).