Figure 1.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) signaling pathway. Schematic view of the components of the TLRs signaling pathways. See text for details. TLR4, RAGE, and IL-1R1 are mainly located at the plasma membrane, whereas TLR3 is located in intracellular vesicles. Components of the pathway that are increased in epilepsy are in blue. Therapeutic strategies to prevent the pathway are in red. NAC+SFN: N-acetyl-cysteine plus sulforaphane; α-HMGB1: anti-high mobility group box 1 monoclonal antibody; α-IL-1β: anti-interleukin-1β monoclonal antibody. Pointed arrows indicate direction of the signaling pathway. Blunt arrows indicate inhibition.