Table 2.

Recent reports concerning fasting and inflammation.

Intervention Duration and Type of Fasting	Population	Comparison Group or Condition	Effects	Reference
15 days: alternate day fasting (20 h fasting intervals)	8 males non-obese adults	None	↑ adiponectin, ↓ leptin ↓ glucose, NS insulin, NS IL-6, NS TNF-α	[69]
29 days: every day 16.5 h fasting, isocaloric diet	27 females, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)	None	NS insulin, NS LDL, NS HDL, NS TG, ↓hs-CRP (p = 0,072), ↑GSH, NS MDA, NS TAC	[195]
22 days: no caloric intake every other day (36 h fasting intervals)	8 females, 8 males, non-obese adults	None	NS glucose, ↓ insulin,↓ weight	[167]
8weeks: every day 16 h fasting, isocaloric diet	34 resistance-trained males	2 groups time-restricted feeding (TRF) or normal diet group (ND).	NS Weight, ↓Fat mass, ↑Adiponectin, ↓ Leptin, ↓IL-6, ↓IL-1β, NS insulin, NS T3, NS Glucose, NS Cholesterol, NS Cortisol, NS HDL, NS LDL, TG↓,	[196]
1 day: water only (28 h fasting interval)	20 females, 10 males Healthy adults	None	↓ glucose, ↓ insulin, ↓ weight, ↑ LDL ↑ HDL, ↓ TG, NS CRP, NS adiponectin	[200]
29 days: every day 16 h fasting	83 patients with NAFLD	42 fasted, 41 control, comparison between groups	↓Weight, ↓BMI, NS BF, ↓Glucose, ↓insulin, ↓IL-6, ↓hs-CRP	[198]
20 weeks: 1 day per week fast OR 5-day consecutive fasts every 5 weeks (400–600 kcals on fasting days)	31 females, 23 males Overweight or obese diabetics	1200–1500 kcal weight loss diet	↓ weight, NS glucose, NS insulin, NS LDL, NS HDL	[201]
21 days: every day 14–15 h fasting	Fifty (21 men and 29 women) healthy volunteers	7 days before fasting vs. 21 days after fasting	↓Weight, ↓BMI, ↓BF%, ↓SBP, ↓DPB, ↓IL-6, ↓IL-1β, ↓TNF-α, ↓Total ↓leukocytes, ↓Granulosytes, ↓Lymphocytes, ↓Monocytes	[197]
8 weeks: <20% of usual intake on alternate days. Ad libitum diet on non-fasting days.	8 females, 2 males Overweight adults with asthma	None	↓ TNF-α, ↓ BDNF, ↓ weight, NS glucose, NS insulin, NS LDL, ↑ HDL, ↓ TGs, NS CRP, NS leptin, ↓ Protein Carbonyls, ↓ Nitrotyrosine, ↓ 8-isoprostane	[193]
2 years caloric restriction	34 CR (15%) and 19 control for 2 years	comparison between groups	↓Weight, ↓BMI, ↓ BF, ↓ Leptin ns, Insulin NS, ↓ 2,3-dinor-iPF(2α)-III	[192]
8 weeks: weight loss diet with alternate day modified fasting (~25% of total energy needs)	12 females, 8 males Obese adults	None	↓ weight, ↓ LDL, NS HDL, ↓ TGs	[165]
6 months: 25% energy restriction 2 days per week	107 females Young, overweight or obese adults	25% energy restriction 7 days per week	NS CRP, NS adiponectin, NS leptin NS BDNF NS glucose, ↓ insulin NS glucose, ↓ insulin	[166]
12 weeks: 25% of energy needs alternating with ad libitum intake	39 females, 2 males Obese adults	Control group	↓ weight, NS CRP, NS glucose NS insulin, NS LDL, NS HDL, NS TG	[202]
6±3 years caloric restriction	18 CR and 18 control	comparison between groups	↓Weight, ↓BMI, ↓ BF, ↓ LDL, ↓HDL, ↓TG, ↓ Cholesterol, ↓insulin, ↓glucose, ↓hs-CRP, ↓SBP, ↓DBP	[203]
6 weeks: 25–30% energy needs on Sat. Mon, Wed; ad libitum other days	15 females Overweight or obese	None	↓ weight, NS LDL, NS HDL, NS TG	[204]
12 weeks: 25% energy restriction 2 consecutive days per week	37 females Overweight or obese women	25% energy restriction all days of week	NS adiponectin, NS leptin, NS IL-6, NS TNF-α, NS glucose, NS HbA1c, ↓ insulin, NS LDL NS HDL, NS TG, NS weight	[205]
10 weeks intermittent fasting (IF)-calorie restriction (CR) regimen (with or without liquid meals)	54 were randomized to either the IFCR-liquid (IFCR-L) or IFCR-food based (IFCR-F) diet	comparison between 3rd and 10rd week in each group	In IFCR-L: ↓Leptin, ↓IL-6, ↓TNF-α, NS CRP, ↓IGF-1, In IFCR-F: ↓Leptin, NS IL-6, NS TNF-α, NS CRP, NS IGF-1,	[206]
12 weeks: weight loss diet with alternate day modified fasting (~25% of energy needs)	22 females, 8 males Normal and overweight adults	Control group	↓ CRP, ↑ adiponectin, ↓ leptin NS LDL, NS HDL, ↓ TG, ↓ weight	[194]

NS—non-significant; hs-CRP—highly sensitive CRP; LDL—low density lipoproteins; HDL—high density lipoproteins; GSH—glutathione; TAC—total antioxidant capacity; T3—triiodotironine; TG—triglycerides; BMI—body mass index; BF—body fat; SBP—systolic blood pressure; DBP—diastolic blood pressure; 2,3-dinor-iPF(2α)-III –2,3-dinor-8-iso Prostaglandin F 2α; HbA1C—glycated hemoglobin; IGF-1—insulin growth factor 1.