Table 3.
Study Design and Sample Characteristics of Included Studies.
| First Author (Year) | Study design/ Location | Sample characteristics | Ethnicity | Recruitment and data source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amundsen (2015) | Cross-sectional/ Norway | N: 1628 Age: Mean: 38.4; Sex: 76.4 % male |
NR | - Norwegian Cause of Death Registry (2003–2009) - linked to administrative databases |
| Binswanger et al. (2007) | Cohort/ USA | N: 30,237; Age: Mean (SD): 33.4 (9.8); Sex: 87.0 % male |
White, non-Hispanic: 62 %; Black, non-Hispanic: 20 %; Hispanic: 13 %; Native American, Alaska Native, non-Hispanic: 3%; Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic: 2% |
- Washington State Department of Corrections (1999–2003) - linked to National Death Index |
| Bohnert et al. (2011) | Longitudinal data/ USA | *N: 74 police precincts; Age: Mean percent under 35 (SD): 51.2 % (7.5); Sex: Mean percent male (SD): 47.0 % (2.3) male |
*Black: Mean percent (SD): 27.5 % (27.2) | - Office of the Chief Medical Examiner data in New York |
| Brinkley-Rubinstein et al. (2018) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 530; Age:18−39: 45.3%, 40+: 54.7 %; Sex: 70.9 % male |
White: 90.2 %;Non-white: 9.8 % | - Rhode Island Office of Medical Examiner Data - Linked to Rhode Island Department of Corrections |
| Burns et al. (2004) | Cross-sectional/ Australia | N: 163; Age: Median: 21; Sex: 54.0 % male |
NR | - Survey with young people (15–30 years) who used heroin from three inner-metropolitan Melbourne general practices (June - December 2000) - linked to the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme |
| Brown and Wehby, 2019 | Longitudinal data/ USA | N: 50 states; Age: Mean: NR; Sex: NR |
NR | - CDC’s Detailed Mortality File (1999−2014) - US Census Bureau Population Survey - Freddie Mac House Price Index |
| Campbell et al. (2018) | Cohort/ USA | N: 396,452; Age: Mean: 51.83; Sex: 41.0 % male |
Hispanic: 17.2 %; Asian: 9.7 %; Black: 9.4 %; Multi-racial: 4.5 %; Native American: 0.6 %; Other or unknown: 1.8 %; White: 56.8 % |
- Kaiser Permanente Northern California Electronic Health Records database (2011−2014) |
| Carrà et al. (2017) | Cross-sectional/ Italy | N: 265; Age: Mean (SD): 35.4 (9.4); Sex: 79.0 % male |
NR | - Therapeutic community program participants - Completed survey for the Psychiatric and Addictive Dual Disorders in Italy project (2010) |
| Cerdá et al. (2013) | Case control/ USA | N: 6413; Age:15−44 :58.9%,45−64: 41.1 %, Sex: 77.9 % male |
White: 39.6 %; Black: 25.7 %; Hispanic: 29.7 % | - Office of the Chief Medical Examiner New York (2000−2006) |
| Cheng et al. (2013) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 254; Age:18−44 years:57.5%, 45 years or older:42.5 %; Sex: NR |
White: 98.3 %; Black: 0.4 %; Other: 0.8 % |
- Prescription Pain Medication Dataset from the Utah Department of Health (2008−2009) - Office of the Medical Examiner - linked to the Labour Commission database |
| Cochran et al. (2017) | Cohort/ USA | N: 297,634; Age:18−29:47.3%,30−64: 52.7 %; Sex: 28.7 % male |
White: 56.2 %; Black: 28.2 %; Hispanic: 12.1 %; Other: 3.6 % | - Medicaid records from Pennsylvania Department of Human Services (2010−2012) |
| Coolen et al. (2009) | Cross sectional/ USA | N: 1668 Age: <18−44: 50.5%, 45–65+: 49.5; |
NR | - Washington State Department of Health (2004−2007) |
| Cropsey et al. (2013) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 478; Age: Mean (SD): 35.7 (11.1); Sex: 67.3 % male |
White: 44.4 %; Black: 52.9 %; Other: 2.7 % | - Survey with criminal justice involved individuals who reported to a community corrections office for drug monitoring (2012) |
| Dunn et al. (2016) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 345; Age: 29.1 % older than 50 years; Sex: 44.8 % male |
Caucasian: 60.0 %; Hispanic: 3.5 % |
- Survey with methadone maintenance clinic and syringe program participants |
| Feng et al. (2016) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 9647; Age: -20 −34: 42.0%, 35–55+: 57.9 %; Sex: 48.0 % male |
Non-Hispanic White: 73.9 %; Non-Hispanic Black: 9.5 %; Hispanic: 9.4 %; Other: 7.3 % |
- Nevada State inpatient and emergency department databases (2011−2013) - linked to the US census five year (2009−2013) American Community Survey |
| Fernandes et al. (2015) | Cohort/ USA | N: 358; Age: 18–44: 57.5 %; 45–64: 42.5 %, Sex: 41.5 % male |
White: 84.1 %; Other:15.9 % | - Montana’s Office for Vital Records and Montana Medicaid enrolment records (2003−2012) |
| Hasegawa et al. (2014) | Cohort/ USA | N: 19,709; Age: Median (IQR): 42 (27−55); Sex: 43.0% male |
Non-Hispanic White: 69 %; Non-Hispanic Black: 9%; Hispanic: 15 %; Other: 4% |
- California and Florida State Emergency Department Databases and State Inpatient Databases (2010−2011) |
| Hollingsworth et al. (2017) | Longitudinal data/ USA | N: 3138 counties; Age: NA; Sex: NA |
NR | - State Emergency Department Databases - CDC Multiple Cause of Death files |
| Jenkins et al. (2011) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 443; Age: Mean (SD): 38 (12); Sex: 71.0 % male |
White: 73 %; African-American: 8%; Native American, Alaska Native: 5%; Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander: 1%; Asian, South Asian: 1%; Latino, Hispanic: 6%; Multi-racial: 6% | - Surveys for individuals using syringe exchange sites in King County and Seattle, Washington |
| Marshall et al. (2017) | Ecological/ USA | N: 1065; Age: 0–44: 48.8 %,45–65+: 51.2 %; Sex: 61 % male |
Hispanic: 12 %;White: 84 %;Asian: 2.4 %;Black: 1.7 % | -Orange County Coroner Division’s data file (2010−2014) |
| McAuley and Best (2012) | Cross-sectional/ United Kingdom | N: 291; Age: Mean (SD): 33.5 (8.9); Sex: 82.1 % male |
NR | -Drug-related death monitoring data from two Scottish National Health Service Board areas (2006−2007) |
| Meiman et al. (2015) | Cross sectional/ USA | N: 1540 Age: <18−34: 68.1%, 35–55+: 31.9 %; Sex: 71.1 % male |
Black: 12.7 %;White: 77.2 %;Other: 5.1 % | -Wisconsin Division of Public Health’s emergency department visit and hospital discharge datasets (2003–2012) |
| Nadpara et al. (2018) | Nested case-control/ USA | N: 45,153; Age: 18−54: 60.0%,55−65+: 40.0 %;Sex: 52.1 % male |
Non-Hispanic White: 56.8 %; Non-Hispanic Black: 15.4 %;Hispanic: 5.2 %;Other: 22.7 % |
-PharMetrics Plus data set from the IMS Health Real-World Data Adjudicated Claims–US Database |
| Ochoa et al. (2005) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 795 Age: 15−19: 23.1%20−24: 51.1 %25−29: 25.8 %;Sex: 66.8 % male |
Caucasian: 80.4 %; Native American:1.1 %; African–American: 2.3 %; Asian/Pacific Islander: 0.6 %; Hispanic 3.6 %; Mixed, other: 10.9 % |
- Survey with participants were who were <30 years old and had injected once or more in the prior month recruited using street outreach and snowball techniques |
| Ødegård et al. (2010) | Cohort/ Norway | N: 338 Age: Mean: 25.6 [Men]; 24.3 [Women]; Sex: 72 % male |
NR | - Survey with participants receiving treatment at the State Clinic for Drug Addicts (1981−1991) |
| Patrick et al. (2016) | Interrupted time-series/ USA | N: 343−34 (states) Age: NR; Sex: NR |
NR | -State prescription drug monitoring programs (<2011) -National Alliance for State Model Drug Laws (2012−2013) |
| Paulozzi et al. (2009) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: Methadone (n = 87) Other Opioids (n = 163) Age: 18−34: 38.4%35−45+: 61.6 %;Sex: 67.6 % male |
NR | - Coroner’s data from West Virginia (2006) -West Virginia Controlled Substances Monitoring Program |
| Ponicki et al. (2018) | Longitudinal data/ USA | N: 5513 Age: Mean (SD): 0−19: 27.59 (4.53) 20−24: 7.37 (1.05) 25−44: 25.55 (4.85) 45−64: 24.70 (3.33) Sex: 49.6 % male |
NR | -Nebraska and South Dakota inpatient hospital discharges (2007−2012) |
| Rintoul et al. (2010) | Cohort/Australia | N: 172 Age: <18−44: 59.3%45−65+: 40.8 %Sex: 58.1 % male |
NR | -National Coroners Information System (NCIS) Victorian Drugs Module (VDM; 2003) -VIFM toxicology database (<2003) |
| Seal et al. (2001) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 1427 <39: 406 (28.5 %)40−50+: 1021 (71.5 %) |
Black: 51.3 %;White: 35.2 %;Latino: 7.3 %; Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, and Mixed: 6.1 % |
-Survey with street recruited people who inject drugs in San Francisco Bay Area, California |
| Shah et al. (2005) | Longitudinal data/ USA | N: 1120 Age: <15 to 44: 67.0 %;45–70+: 33.0 %;Sex: 77.4 % male |
White, non-Hispanic: 42.0 %; Hispanic: 52.5 %; American Indian: 2.0 %; Black or Asian: 2.9 % |
-Office of the Medical Investigator and the Toxicology Bureau of the Scientific Laboratory Division, New Mexico Department of Health (1998−2002) |
| Sharp and Melnik (2015) | Longitudinal data/ USA | N: NR Age: <15−85+ Sex: NR |
NR | -New York state vital statistics multiple-cause-of-death data - New York state Medicaid enrollment data. |
| Sherman et al. (2007) | Cohort/ USA | N: NR Age: Median (IQR) in group Experienced overdose (n = 90): Yes: 28.7 (26.0, 31.5); No: 29.1 (25.9, 33.0); Sex: 56.7 % male |
Race in group experienced OD: African American: Yes: 18.0 %;No: 45.4 % |
-Survey with young people who use drugs in the Risk Evaluation and Assessment of Community Health III (REACH III) cohort (1999−2002) |
| Siegler et al. (2014) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 2649 Age:15–44: 48.2 %; 45–84: 51.7 %;Sex: 73.8 % male |
Non-Hispanic Black: 21.6 %; Non-Hispanic White: 46.2 %; Hispanic: 29.6 %; Non-Hispanic Other: 2.6 % |
- NYC linked death certificates and medical examiner files (2005−2010) |
| Visconti et al. (2015) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 331 Age: Mean (SD): 48.2 (12.5); Sex: 68.3 % male |
Non-Hispanic White: 71.0 %; African-American:19.9 %; Hispanic 4.2 %;Asian 2.1 %; Other: 7% |
-California Electronic Death Reporting System (2010−2012) |
| Wagner et al. (2015) | Cross-sectional/ USA | N: 573 Age: Mean (SD): 43.5 (12); Sex: 72.8 % male |
White: 50.1 %; Hispanic/Latino: 31.1 %;Other: 18.0 % |
-Survey with people who inject drugs in San Diego, California |
| Zlotorzynska et al. (2014) | Cross-sectional/ Canada | N: 1338 Age: NR; Sex: NR |
NR | - Insite facility’s on-site surveillance database |
*Aggregate data collected at police precinct level.