Table 1.
General characteristics of the skin and retina study populations according to sex‐specific tertiles of total physical activity
| Characteristic | Skin study population | Retinal study population | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tertile 1 of total physical activity (highest) n = 432 | Tertile 2 of total physical activity n = 434 | Tertile 3 of total physical activity (lowest) n = 432 | Tertile 1 of total physical activity (highest) n = 616 | Tertile 2 of total physical activity n = 616 | Tertile 3 of total physical activity (lowest) n = 615 | |
| Range of total physical activity (h/day) in men | 2.21‐4.69 | 1.52‐2.21 | 0.22‐1.52 | 2.25‐4.67 | 1.56‐2.25 | 0.19‐1.56 |
| Range of total physical activity (h/day) in women | 2.27‐5.38 | 1.73‐2.27 | 0.30‐1.73 | 2.33‐5.38 | 1.77‐2.32 | 0.30‐1.77 |
| Age (years) | 59.0 ± 7.5 | 60.4 ± 8.0 | 61.1 ± 8.5 | 58.8 ± 7.7 | 59.5 ± 8.2 | 60.5 ± 8.4 |
| Women | 200 (46.3) | 201 (46.3) | 200 (46.3) | 298 (48.4) | 298 (48.4) | 298 (48.5) |
| Educational level | ||||||
| Low | 131 (30.3) | 128 (29.5) | 173 (40.0) | 185 (30.0) | 177 (28.7) | 230 (37.4) |
| Medium | 113 (26.2) | 130 (30.0) | 116 (26.9) | 163 (26.5) | 190 (30.8) | 182 (29.6) |
| High | 188 (43.5) | 176 (40.6) | 143 (33.1) | 268 (43.5) | 249 (40.4) | 203 (33.0) |
| Occupational status | ||||||
| Unemployed | 207 (55.1) | 213 (56.6) | 241 (65.1) | 271 (50.5) | 285 (53.4) | 332 (61.7) |
| Employed | 169 (44.9) | 163 (43.4) | 129 (34.9) | 266 (49.5) | 249 (46.6) | 206 (38.3) |
| Glucose metabolism status | ||||||
| NGM | 277 (64.1) | 244 (56.2) | 178 (41.2) | 413 (67.0) | 369 (59.9) | 274 (44.6) |
| Prediabetes | 73 (16.9) | 83 (19.1) | 60 (13.9) | 93 (15.1) | 106 (17.2) | 87 (14.1) |
| T2D | 82 (19.0) | 107 (24.7) | 194 (44.9) | 110 (17.9) | 141 (22.9) | 254 (41.3) |
| Type 2 diabetes duration (years) | 4.0 [2.5‐7.0] | 5.0 [2.0‐11.0] | 8.0 [3.0‐12.5] | 5.0 [3.0‐9.5] | 5.0 [2.0‐10.0] | 7.0 [3.0‐13.0] |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 25.9 ± 3.7 | 26.6 ± 3.8 | 28.4 ± 5.1 | 25.7 ± 3.8 | 26.5 ± 3.9 | 28.3 ± 5.2 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | ||||||
| Men | 97.0 ± 10.0 | 100.4 ± 10.0 | 106.5 ± 13.3 | 96.4 ± 10.0 | 100.3 ± 9.9 | 106.7 ± 13.6 |
| Women | 87.1 ± 10.2 | 88.7 ± 11.5 | 94.1 ± 14.8 | 85.9 ± 10.9 | 88.2 ± 11.2 | 92.8 ± 14.1 |
| History of cardiovascular disease | 59 (13.7) | 72 (16.6) | 96 (22.2) | 69 (11.2) | 94 (15.3) | 123 (20.0) |
| Limited mobility | 37 (8.6) | 56 (12.9) | 114 (26.4) | 52 (8.4) | 68 (11.0) | 164 (26.7) |
| Office SBP (mmHg) | 134.1 ± 18.4 | 136.5 ± 17.3 | 137.4 ± 18.9 | 133.8 ± 17.9 | 135.2 ± 18.1 | 135.9 ± 18.1 |
| Office DBP (mmHg) | 76.1 ± 9.3 | 77.3 ± 9.9 | 76.4 ± 9.6 | 75.9 ± 9.9 | 76.9 ± 10.0 | 76.4 ± 9.9 |
| Ambulatory 24‐h SBP (mmHg) | 120.9 ± 11.2 | 120.1 ± 12.1 | 120.0 ± 11.8 | 118.7 ± 11.0 | 118.7 ± 11.5 | 117.7 ± 11.7 |
| Ambulatory 24‐h DBP (mmHg) | 74.7 ± 7.2 | 73.7 ± 7.3 | 74.1 ± 7.5 | 73.3 ± 7.1 | 73.3 ± 7.2 | 72.8 ± 7.2 |
| Smoking | ||||||
| Never/former/current | 169/227/36 | 140/259/35 | 120/228/84 | 265/304/47 | 211/345/60 | 173/326/116 |
| % (never/former/current) | 39.1/52.5/8.3 | 32.3/59.7/8.1 | 27.8/52.8/19.4 | 43.0/49.4/7.6 | 34.3/56.0/9.7 | 28.1/53.0/18.9 |
| Alcohol consumption (high) | 142 (32.9) | 113 (26.0) | 95 (22.0) | 182 (29.5) | 145 (23.5) | 135 (22.0) |
| Energy intake (kcal/day) | 2221.3 ± 586.1 | 2193.8 ± 560.8 | 2101.3 ± 586.6 | 2245.9 ± 619.1 | 2155.3 ± 566.6 | 2083.0 ± 571.4 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | 5.8 ± 1.2 | 6.0 ± 1.5 | 6.5 ± 2.0 | 5.8 ± 1.4 | 5.9 ± 1.4 | 6.5 ± 2.0 |
| 2‐h postload glucose (mmol/L) | 7.3 ± 4.0 | 7.9 ± 4.2 | 9.2 ± 4.7 | 7.1 ± 3.7 | 7.6 ± 4.0 | 8.9 ± 4.6 |
| HbA1c (%) | 5.8 ± 0.6 | 5.9 ± 0.8 | 6.2 ± 1.1 | 5.7 ± 0.7 | 5.8 ± 0.7 | 6.1 ± 1.1 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 39.5 ± 6.9 | 40.7 ± 8.3 | 44.1 ± 12.2 | 38.7 ± 8.0 | 39.5 ± 8.1 | 43.1 ± 11.5 |
| Total‐to‐HDL cholesterol ratio | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 3.7 ± 1.2 | 3.8 ± 1.2 | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 3.6 ± 1.2 | 3.8 ± 1.2 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.4 ± 1.1 | 5.3 ± 1.2 | 5.0 ± 1.2 | 5.4 ± 1.1 | 5.3 ± 1.2 | 5.1 ± 1.2 |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 3.2 ± 1.0 | 3.1 ± 1.1 | 2.9 ± 1.1 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 1.1 | 2.9 ± 1.1 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.3 ± 0.7 | 1.4 ± 1.0 | 1.7 ± 1.0 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 1.4 ± 0.9 | 1.6 ± 0.9 |
| Antihypertensive medication use | 137 (31.7) | 176 (40.6) | 239 (55.3) | 175 (28.4) | 233 (37.8) | 307 (49.9) |
| Lipid‐modifying medication use | 132 (30.6) | 161 (37.1) | 219 (50.7) | 172 (27.9) | 205 (33.3) | 275 (44.7) |
| Diabetes medication use | ||||||
| Any type | 54 (12.5) | 87 (20.0) | 163 (37.7) | 79 (12.8) | 102 (16.6) | 210 (34.1) |
| Insulin | 6 (1.4) | 19 (4.4) | 59 (13.7) | 18 (2.9) | 20 (3.2) | 69 (11.1) |
| Oral glucose‐lowering medication | 52 (12.0) | 84 (19.4) | 149 (34.5) | 72 (11.7) | 97 (15.7) | 196 (31.9) |
| eGFR (mL/min/1.73m2) | 91.2 ± 13.4 | 88.1 ± 14.1 | 85.2 ± 15.8 | 91.1 ± 13.0 | 89.0 ± 14.4 | 85.0 ± 15.4 |
| eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73m2 | 7 (1.6) | 15 (3.5) | 28 (6.6) | 7 (1.1) | 26 (4.2) | 44 (7.2) |
| (Micro)albuminuriaa | 26 (6.1) | 26 (6.0) | 59 (13.8) | 42 (6.9) | 34 (5.6) | 77 (12.4) |
| Retinopathy | 3 (0.8) | 4 (1.0) | 10 (2.6) | 5 (0.8) | 6 (1.0) | 14 (2.3) |
| Baseline skin blood flow before heating (PU)c | 11.9 ± 7.2 | 10.5 ± 5.7 | 10.8 ± 6.3 | 12.0 ± 7.3 | 10.5 ± 5.8 | 10.6 ± 5.5 |
| Skin hyperemic response (%)c | ||||||
| Mean ± SD | 1077.2 ± 731.2 | 1219.5 ± 804.7 | 1083.5 ± 763.6 | 1064.5 ± 743.2 | 1204.7 ± 771.1 | 1118.8 ± 799.0 |
| Median [interquartile range] | 960.6 [570.8‐1462.3] | 1074.0 [636.8‐1630.1] | 910.5 [575.4‐1407.2] | 960.6 [557.8‐1416.5] | 1052.1 [642.7‐1606.4] | 979.0 [585.0‐1464.3] |
| Skin hyperemia during heating (PU)c | ||||||
| Mean ± SD | 114.8 ± 58.0 | 116.3 ± 59.0 | 106.3 ± 54.8 | 114.2 ± 58.7 | 115.0 ± 57.5 | 108.8 ± 57.8 |
| Median [interquartile range] | 107.6 [74.9‐140.6] | 103.3 [75.2‐149.8] | 97.0 [68.3‐131.2] | 108.1 [73.6‐138.5] | 102.3 [73.8‐148.0] | 98.7 [70.0‐133.0] |
| Baseline arteriolar diameter before flicker light exposure (MU)b | 116.3 ± 16.6 | 115.3 ± 16.8 | 116.2 ± 16.0 | 115.6 ± 15.8 | 114.6 ± 16.0 | 115.5 ± 15.2 |
| Arteriolar average dilation (%)b | ||||||
| Mean ± SD | 3.2 ± 3.0 | 3.0 ± 2.7 | 2.9 ± 2.8 | 3.2 ± 2.9 | 3.1 ± 2.8 | 3.0 ± 2.7 |
| Median [interquartile range] | 2.7 [1.0‐5.2] | 2.6 [0.9‐4.7] | 2.4 [0.8‐4.4] | 2.8 [1.0‐5.1] | 2.8 [0.9‐5.1] | 2.6 [0.9‐4.8] |
| Arteriolar diameter during flicker light exposure (MU)b | ||||||
| Mean ± SD | 119.9 ± 16.8 | 118.7 ± 16.8 | 119.5 ± 16.1 | 119.2 ± 15.9 | 118.1 ± 16.0 | 118.9 ± 15.4 |
| Median [interquartile range] | 119.5 [107.9‐129.4] | 118.0 [105.9‐128.3] | 119.4 [107.9‐129.4] | 118.3 [107.9‐129.2] | 118.2 [107.3‐127.9] | 119.0 [108.1‐128.8] |
| Accelerometry variables | ||||||
| Valid worn days | 6.2 ± 1.2 | 6.2 ± 1.1 | 6.2 ± 1.1 | 6.3 ± 1.3 | 6.3 ± 1.1 | 6.3 ± 1.2 |
| Waking time (h/day) | 16.0 ± 0.8 | 15.7 ± 0.9 | 15.4 ± 1.0 | 15.9 ± 0.8 | 15.8 ± 0.9 | 15.5 ± 1.0 |
| Total physical activity (h/day) | 2.7 ± 0.4 | 1.9 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.4 | 2.0 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.3 |
| Higher‐intensity physical activity (h/day) | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.4 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 |
| Sedentary time (h/day) | 8.5 ± 1.4 | 9.5 ± 1.5 | 10.6 ± 1.4 | 8.3 ± 1.4 | 9.4 ± 1.4 | 10.5 ± 1.5 |
Data are reported as mean ± SD, median [interquartile range], or number (percentages %) as appropriate.
Abbreviations: DBP, diastolic blood pressure; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin A1c; HDL, high‐density lipoprotein; LDL, low‐density lipoprotein; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SD, standard deviation.
a
(Micro)albuminuria was defined as a urinary albumin excretion of >30 mg per 24 hours.
b
In the skin study population, flicker light‐induced retinal arteriolar reactivity measures were available in n = 952.
c
In the retinal study population, heat‐induced skin hyperemia measures were available in n = 952.