| Height and birth weight |
There is strong evidence that developmental factors leading to greater growth in length in childhood (marked by adult attained height) are a cause of several cancers. There is strong evidence that factors leading to greater birth weight, or its consequences, are a cause of premenopausal breast cancer. A better understanding of the developmental factors that underpin the association between greater growth and cancer risk is needed.
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| Arsenic in drinking water |
There is strong evidence that consuming arsenic in drinking water is a cause of several cancers. The IARC has defined arsenic and inorganic arsenic as carcinogenic. Do not use any source of water that may be contaminated with arsenic Authorities should ensure that safe water supplies are available when contamination occurs.
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| Aflatoxins |
There is strong evidence that higher consumption of aflatoxin-contamination is a cause of liver cancer. Do not consume moldy cereals (grains) or pulses (legumes). Authorities should ensure that facilities for safe storage are available in areas at risk of aflatoxin contamination.
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| Maté |
Maté is an aqueous infusion prepared from dried leaves of the plant Ilex paraguariensis and typically consumed scalding hot. There is strong evidence that consuming maté (in the traditional style) is a cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. For cancer prevention, do not consume maté in the traditional scalding hot style.
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| Foods preserved by salting |
There is strong evidence, mostly from Asia, that consuming foods preserved by salting (including salt-preserved vegetables, fish, and salt-preserved foods in general) is a cause of stomach cancer. Do not consume foods prepared with salt preservation. There is strong evidence that consuming Cantonese-style salted fish is a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. Do not consume Cantonese-style salted fish. Children, in particular, should avoid this food.
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| Coffee |
There is strong evidence that consuming coffee helps protect against some cancers. More research is needed to define mechanisms and improve understanding of how the volume, frequency of intake, type of coffee, and style of preparation and serving impact the risk of cancer.
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| Mediterranean type dietary pattern |
Many studies suggest that adherence to such a pattern is associated with reduced risk of several cancers. It remains unclear specifically what characteristics define a Mediterranean-type dietary pattern. This dietary pattern is traditionally associated with high levels of physical activity.
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| Dairy products and calcium |
There is strong evidence that consumption of dairy products and consumption of calcium supplements both help to protect against colorectal cancer. There is limited but suggestive evidence that dairy products might increase risk of prostate cancer. The evidence of potential harm means no recommendations have been made.
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