Table 4.
Adjusteda difference in blood glucose levels (mg/dL) 1-hour post 50-g nonfasting glucose challenge test assessed at approximately 28 weeks’ gestation by first-trimester plasma per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances quartiles, overall and stratified by race/ethnicity
| All (n = 1533)b | Asian (n = 68) | Black (n = 234) | Hispanic (n = 108) | White (n = 1064) | Other (n = 59) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PFAS, ng/mL | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | |
| PFOS | Q1 (0.1-18.8) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) |
| Q2 (18.9-25.7) | 2.4 (–1.2 to 6.0) | –1.0 (–15.8 to 13.7) | -0.6 (–11 to 9.7) | 0.0 (–13.7 to 13.6) | 2.0 (–2.3 to 6.3) | 15.2 (–6.9 to 37.3) | |
| Q3 (25.8-34.9) | 3.7 (0.0 to 7.4) | 6.2 (–7.4 to 19.8) | 7.4 (–2.5 to 17.3) | 0.3 (–14.5 to 15) | 2.6 (–1.9 to 7.1) | 12.0 (–9.1 to 33.2) | |
| Q4 (35.0-185.0) | 4.3 (0.5 to 8.0) | 22.2 (9.4 to 34.9) | 1.5 (–8.4 to 11.3) | 13.0 (–3.0 to 28.9) | 2.3 (–2.2 to 6.8) | 13.1 (–9.8 to 35.9) | |
| PFOA | Q1 (0.3-4.2) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) |
| Q2 (4.3-5.9) | –0.4 (–4.0 to 3.3) | –3.6 (–17.2 to 10) | 0.5 (–8.4 to 9.5) | 1.4 (–14.4 to 17.2) | –0.1 (–4.6 to 4.5) | 5.7 (–13.8 to 25.3) | |
| Q3 (6.0-7.9) | 1.0 (–2.8 to 4.8) | 8.4 (–6.8 to 23.6) | –0.5 (–10.3 to 9.2) | 8.5 (–8.0 to 25.0) | 1.1 (–3.6 to 5.8) | –1.7 (–23.6 to 20.1) | |
| Q4 (8.0-36.7) | 1.5 (–2.4 to 5.3) | 9.6 (–6.4 to 25.7) | –1.3 (–10.9 to 8.2) | 5.7 (–10.6 to 22.1) | 1.9 (–2.8 to 6.7) | –0.1 (–22.6 to 22.4) | |
| PFHxS | Q1 (0.1-1.6) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) |
| Q2 (1.7-2.5) | –0.7 (–4.3 to 3.0) | 4.4 (–9.5 to 18.3) | 1.0 (–7.8 to 9.9) | –7.9 (–20.9 to 5.1) | 0.2 (–4.4 to 4.9) | –2.4 (–27 to 22.3) | |
| Q3 (2.6-3.8) | 1.9 (–1.8 to 5.6) | 8.4 (–7.1 to 23.8) | 0.8 (–8.4 to 10.0) | 0.6 (–14.2 to 15.4) | 2.6 (–1.9 to 7.2) | –4.5 (–24.6 to 15.5) | |
| Q4 (3.9-74.5) | 1.2 (–2.6 to 5.0) | 9.3 (–6.5 to 25.1) | –0.8 (–11.3 to 9.7) | –8.0 (–25.4 to 9.4) | 1.8 (–2.8 to 6.4) | 12.2 (-8.8 to 33.1) | |
| PFNA | Q1 (0.1-0.5) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) |
| Q2 (0.6-0.7) | –0.9 (–4.2 to 2.5) | 0.3 (–19.8 to 20.4) | –0.4 (–9.3 to 8.4) | –0.9 (–14 to 12.2) | –1.2 (–5.2 to 2.8) | –1.0 (–20.6 to 18.6) | |
| Q3 (0.8-0.9) | 1.1 (–2.8 to 5.1) | 10.6 (–9.0 to 30.2) | –1.7 (-12.1 to 8.7) | 7.3 (–10.4 to 25.0) | 1.3 (–3.4 to 6.0) | 1.3 (–23.4 to 26.1) | |
| Q4 (1.0-6) | 0.8 (–2.8 to 4.4) | 19.2 (4.9 to 33.6) | 2.1 (–7.2 to 11.4) | 5.8 (–9.7 to 21.2) | –1.6 (–6.1 to 2.8) | 6.3 (–17.8 to 30.5) | |
| EtFOSAA | Q1 (0.1-0.7) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) |
| Q2 (0.8-1.2) | –1.9 (–5.4 to 1.7) | 2.1 (–14.1 to 18.4) | –1.9 (–11.9 to 8.1) | 7.6 (–7.2 to 22.4) | -3.7 (–7.9 to 0.5) | –1.6 (–20.0 to 16.8) | |
| Q3 (1.3-1.9) | 1.7 (–2.0 to 5.4) | –4.1 (–19.7 to 11.4) | 2.6 (–7.3 to 12.5) | 5.9 (–9.7 to 21.6) | 0.5 (–3.9 to 5.0) | 16.7 (–2.2 to 35.6) | |
| Q4 (1.9-33.6) | 0.4 (–3.4 to 4.1) | 6.5 (–9.8 to 22.8) | –4.8 (–15 to 5.4) | 10.0 (–6.4 to 26.3) | 0.6 (–3.8 to 5.1) | –13.6 (–33 to 5.8) | |
| MeFOSAA | Q1 (0.1-1.3) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) | 0 (Reference) |
| Q2 (1.4-1.9) | 5.8 (2.1 to 9.4) | 5.5 (–9.7 to 20.8) | –3 (–13.6 to 7.5) | 4.0 (–10.8 to 18.8) | 7.5 (3.1 to 11.8) | 10.5 (–14.1 to 35.2) | |
| Q3 (2.0-3.2) | 2.4 (–1.1 to 5.9) | 8.8 (–6.8 to 24.4) | 6.2 (–3.5 to 15.8) | –5.5 (–20.9 to 9.9) | 1.5 (–2.7 to 5.7) | 4.6 (–14.2 to 23.3) | |
| Q4 (3.3-29.7) | 2.7 (–1.0 to 6.4) | 2.8 (–12.5 to 18.1) | 0.4 (–9.2 to 10.0) | 1.0 (–15.2 to 17.1) | 3.0 (–1.5 to 7.5) | 12.4 (–7.3 to 32.0) |
Cross-product interaction term P values: PFOS = .30, PFOA = .83, PFHxS = .83, PFNA = .73, EtFOSAA = .25, MeFOSAA = .42.
Abbreviations: EtFOSAA, 2-(N-ethyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamide) acetate; MeFOSAA, 2-(N-methyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamide) acetate; PFAS, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances; PFHxS, perfluorohexane sulfonate; PFNA, perfluorononanoate; PFOA, perfluorooctanoate; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonate.
aAdjusted for maternal age (continuous), prepregnancy body mass index (continuous), prior history of GDM/parity, smoking, and education.
bAdditionally adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity.