Table.

Digital technology initiatives used in pandemic preparedness and response

	Functions	Digital technology	Countries	Advantages	Disadvantages
Tracking	Tracks disease activity in real time	Data dashboards; migration maps; machine learning; real-time data from smartphones and wearable technology	China; Singapore; Sweden; Taiwan; USA	Allows visual depiction of spread; directs border restrictions; guides resource allocation; informs forecasts	Could breach privacy; involves high costs; requires management and regulation
Screening for infection	Screens individuals and populations for disease	Artificial intelligence; digital thermometers; mobile phone applications; thermal cameras; web-based toolkits	China; Iceland; Singapore; Taiwan	Provides information on disease prevalence and pathology; identifies individuals for testing, contact tracing, and isolation	Could breach privacy; fails to detect asymptomatic individuals if based on self-reported symptoms or monitoring of vital signs; involves high costs; requires management and regulation; requires validation of screening tools
Contact tracing	Identifies and tracks individuals who might have come into contact with an infected person	Global positioning systems; mobile phone applications; real-time monitoring of mobile devices; wearable technology	Germany; Singapore; South Korea	Identifies exposed individuals for testing and quarantine; tracks viral spread	Could breach privacy; might detect individuals who have not been exposed but have had contact; could fail to detect individuals who are exposed if the application is deactivated, the mobile device is absent, or Wi-Fi or cell connectivity is inadequate
Quarantine and self-isolation	Identifies and tracks infected individuals, and implements quarantine	Artificial intelligence; cameras and digital recorders; global positioning systems; mobile phone applications; quick response codes	Australia; China; Iceland; South Korea; Taiwan	Isolates infections; restricts travel	Violates civil liberties; could restrict access to food and essential services; fails to detect individuals who leave quarantine without devices
Clinical management	Diagnoses infected individuals; monitors clinical status; predicts clinical outcomes; provides capacity for telemedicine services and virtual care	Artificial intelligence for diagnostics; machine learning; virtual care or telemedicine platforms	Australia; Canada; China; Ireland; USA	Assists with clinical decision-making, diagnostics, and risk prediction; enables efficient service delivery; facilitates patient-centred, remote care; facilitates infection control	Could breach privacy; fails to accurately diagnose patients; involves high costs; equipment may malfunction