TABLE 1.
Characteristics of the study population by tertiles of dietary CML intake (age and sex adjusted)1
| Total | Low CML | Medium CML | High CML | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | (n = 2515) | (n = 838) | (n = 838) | (n = 839) |
| CML, mg/d (energy-adjusted) | 3.40 ± 0.89 | 2.55 ± 0.48 | 3.30 ± 0.19 | 4.33 ± 0.72 |
| Age, y | 67.76 ± 9.59 | 66.90 ± 9.46 | 68.62 ± 9.03 | 67.75 ± 10.17 |
| Sex (women) | 1432 (57) | 474 (57) | 481 (57) | 477 (57) |
| Time between FFQ and SAF measurement | 5.00 (4.54, 5.57) | 5.13 (4.55, 5.58) | 4.82 (4.53, 5.54) | 5.12 (4.56, 5.57) |
| Education level (n = 2476) | ||||
| Primary, n (%) | 157 (6) | 54 (7) | 52 (6) | 51 (6) |
| Lower, n (%) | 963 (39) | 319 (39) | 338 (41) | 306 (37) |
| Intermediate, n (%) | 760 (31) | 254 (31) | 253 (31) | 253 (31) |
| Higher, n (%) | 596 (24) | 201 (24) | 180 (22) | 215 (26) |
| Physical activity, MET h/wk (n = 2369) | 42.50 (17.55, 83.86) | 42.07 (17.00, 86.13) | 44.54 (17.86, 84.22) | 41.50 (17.93, 81.15) |
| Alcohol intake, g/d (n = 2289) | 8.57 (1.61, 8.57) | 8.57 (6.43, 15.00) | 8.57 (1.61, 8.57) | 6.43 (1.52, 8.57) |
| Smoking status (n = 2506) | ||||
| Never, n (%) | 800 (32) | 227 (27) | 280 (34) | 293 (35) |
| Former, n (%) | 1347 (54) | 463 (55) | 437 (53) | 447 (53) |
| Current, n (%) | 359 (14) | 147 (18) | 115 (14) | 97 (12) |
| Coffee intake,2 g/d | 406 (174, 406) | 406 (174, 406) | 406 (174, 406) | 406 (174, 406) |
| BMI, kg/m2 (n = 2501) | 27.47 ± 4.25 | 27.21 ± 4.16 | 27.62 ± 4.24 | 27.59 ± 4.35 |
| Fasting serum glucose, mmol/L (n = 2472) | 5.40 (5.10, 5.90) | 5.40 (5.10, 5.90) | 5.50 (5.10, 6.00) | 5.40 (5.10, 5.90) |
| Total cholesterol, mmol/L (n = 2472) | 5.46 ± 1.07 | 5.52 ± 1.08 | 5.47 ± 1.06 | 5.39 ± 1.06 |
| HDL cholesterol, mmol/L (n = 2472) | 1.42 (1.19, 1.71) | 1.42 (1.22, 1.73) | 1.46 (1.21, 1.74) | 1.39 (1.14, 1.67) |
| Triglycerides, mmol/L (n = 2472) | 1.26 (0.96, 1.73) | 1.28 (0.94, 1.75) | 1.24 (0.97, 1.68) | 1.26 (0.96, 1.75) |
| eGFR, mL/min per 1.73 m2 (n = 2468) | 78.70 (68.12, 88.01) | 80.15 (69.71, 89.00) | 77.35 (67.64, 86.83) | 78.64 (67.17, 87.60) |
| Chronic kidney disease (n = 2468) | 296 (12.0) | 92 (11.2) | 97 (11.8) | 107 (13.0) |
| Diabetes (n = 2488) | 303 (12.2) | 82 (9.9) | 114 (13.8) | 107 (12.9) |
| Energy intake, kcal/d | 2140 ± 681 | 2212 ± 714 | 1984 ± 645 | 2224 ± 655 |
| Protein intake, g/d | 82.0 ± 25.4 | 78.8 ± 24.8 | 78.0 ± 23.8 | 89.4 ± 26.1 |
| Carbohydrate intake, g/d | 240.7 ± 85.0 | 246.3 ± 91.2 | 224.0 ± 80.7 | 251.7 ± 80.0 |
| Fat intake, g/d | 71.3 (54.9, 92.5) | 70.7 (54.3, 93.9) | 68.0 (51.2, 86.1) | 75.5 (58.9, 97.6) |
| Diet quality score | 7.0 ± 1.9 | 6.6 ± 1.9 | 7.0 ± 1.8 | 7.3 ± 1.8 |
| MGH1, mg/d (energy-adjusted) | 28.98 ± 7.87 | 24.36 ± 5.86 | 28.95 ± 5.10 | 33.62 ± 9.10 |
| CEL, mg/d (energy-adjusted) | 3.11 ± 0.89 | 2.55 ± 0.64 | 3.11 ± 0.60 | 3.66 ± 0.99 |
| SAF, AU | 2.40 ± 0.50 | 2.38 ± 0.50 | 2.43 ± 0.50 | 2.40 ± 0.51 |
Values are n (%) or means ± SDs if normally distributed and medians (IQRs) if nonnormally distributed, n = 2515 unless otherwise indicated. The low, medium, and high CML intake groups were determined by tertiles of energy-adjusted CML intake after adjusting for age and sex in linear regression. Energy-adjusted AGEs were calculated by adding the mean dAGEs intake and residuals of dAGEs adjusted by energy intake in the linear regression. AGEs, advanced glycation end products; AU, arbitrary units; CEL, carboxyethyl-lysine; CML, carboxymethyl-lysine; dAGEs, advanced glycation end products present in the diet; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; MET, metabolic equivalent of task, with 1 MET defined as 1 kcal/kg/h; MGH1, N-(5-hydro-5-methyl-4-imidazolon-2-yl)-ornithine; SAF, skin autofluorescence.
Identical values in coffee intake by coincidence.