Table 1.
The ligands of PPARγ.
| Ligands of PPARγ | Examples | Effects | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Natural ligands | the eicosanoid prostaglandin-A1 and the cyclopentenone prostaglandin 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-Prostaglandin J2(15D-PGJ2) | rapid expression and ability to contribute to a natural defense mechanism | [147] |
| unsaturated fatty acids | Upregulate PPARγ expression | [148] | |
| Nitrated fatty acids (NFAs) | anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects via PPAR-γ activation | [149] | |
| Nitroalkenes | activate PPARγ in monocytes and upregulate FABP4 expression | [150] | |
| oxidized phospholipids | dual effect on bile acid-induced CCL2 expression in pancreatic acini | [151] | |
| Synthetic ligands | the thiazolidinedione (TZD) family | treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus | [28] |
| the non-TZD agonists | treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus | [28] | |
| the selective PPARγ modulators (SPPARγM) | mediate Tissue-Dependent PPARγ activation and insulin sensitization | [152] | |
| the dual α/γ agonists | treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus | [28] | |
| pan α/δ/γ agonists | treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus | [28] |