Table 1. Chlorogenic acid modulates pain and inflammation in vitro.

	Compound	Method	Model	Dose	Response	Refs.
Anti-inflammatory effects	CGA	Staphylococcal exotoxin-stimulated inflammation	Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells	0.2, 2, 20, and 200 µg/ml	Anti-inflammatory; inhibited production of TNF-α and IL-6	[41]
	CGA	LPS-induced inflammation	RAW264.7 cells	37.5 µg/ml	Anti-inflammatory; decreased LPS-induced cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 upregulation, inhibited PGE2 release, attenuated activation of NF-κB and JNK/AP-1 signaling pathways	[40]
	CGA	LPS-induced inflammation	Primary culture of microglia	1-4 mM	Improved survival of dopaminergic neurons; suppressed NO production, TNF-α release, and NF-κB translocation	[66]
	Caffeic acid	LPS-induced inflammation	RAW264.7 cells	100-400 µM	Decreased NO and PGE2 production; downregulated TNF-α, COX-2, and iNOS levels; suppressed nuclear translocation of AP-1 family proteins, IL-1 receptor, IRAK-1, IRAK4, TGF-β,TAK1, MAPKK-4/7, JNK	[80]
	Rosae Multiflorae Fructus extract	LPS-induced inflammation	RAW264.7 cells	25, 50, 100, and 200 µg/ml	Anti-inflammatory; regulatory effects on NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways	[78]
Pain modulatory effects	CGA	Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in an inflammatory environment	Rat trigeminal ganglion neurons	0.2 mmol	Promoted Kv channels activation and inactivation under inflammatory conditions	[122]
	CGA	Acid stretch test	Rats; rat dorsal root ganglia neurons	0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 µM	Ameliorated the acidosis-evoked pain; inhibited acid-sensing ion channels in rat dorsal root ganglia neurons	[126]
	CGA	Extracellular single-unit recordings	Rat trigeminal spinal nucleus caudalis neurons (SpVc)	0.1-10 mM	Local CGA injection into the periphery suppressed SpVc neuron excitability	[127]
	CGA	Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings	Rat trigeminal ganglion neurons	0.2 and 1 mmol	Enhanced Kv activities	[121]