Table 2.
Effect Sizes Quantifying Associations Between Risk Factors and Refractive Error, Evaluated Using OLS Linear Regression or Quantile Regression
| Risk Factor | Cohort | Research Clinic | N | OLS Regression | Quantile Regression: Quantile 0.05 | Quantile Regression: Quantile 0.50 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β (95% CI) | P Value | β (95% CI) | P Value | β (95% CI) | P Value | ||||
| Female sex | ALSPAC | Age 7 | 5564 | –0.016 (–0.062 to 0.030) | 4.92E–01 | 0.000 (–0.090 to 0.090) | 1.00E+00 | 0.000 (–0.030 to 0.030) | 1.00E+00 |
| Age 10 | 5291 | 0.009 (–0.050 to 0.067) | 7.66E–01 | 0.062 (–0.118 to 0.243) | 4.98E–01 | 0.000 (–0.039 to 0.039) | 1.00E+00 | ||
| Age 12 | 4839 | –0.069 (–0.135 to –0.003) | 3.98E–02 | –0.188 (–0.448 to 0.073) | 1.59E–01 | 0.000 (–0.031 to 0.031) | 1.00E+00 | ||
| Age 15 | 3687 | 0.008 (–0.075 to 0.090) | 8.54E–01 | 0.062 (–0.371 to 0.496) | 7.78E–01 | –0.062 (–0.111 to –0.014) | 1.11E–02 | ||
| Generation R | Age 9 | 2395 | 0.010 (–0.091 to 0.111) | 8.47E–01 | –0.063 (–0.585 to 0.460) | 8.15E–01 | 0.063 (–0.003 to 0.128) | 6.21E–02 | |
| High genetic risk | ALSPAC | Age 7 | 5564 | –0.163 (–0.209 to –0.117) | 3.91E–12 | –0.188 (–0.282 to –0.093) | 1.00E–04 | –0.125 (–0.155 to –0.095) | 4.44E–16 |
| Age 10 | 5291 | –0.235 (–0.293 to –0.177) | 2.28E–15 | –0.438 (–0.634 to –0.241) | 1.30E–05 | –0.125 (–0.155 to –0.095) | 6.66E–16 | ||
| Age 12 | 4839 | –0.300 (–0.365 to –0.235) | 2.73E–19 | –0.812 (–1.084 to –0.541) | 4.54E–09 | –0.125 (–0.156 to –0.094) | 1.78E–15 | ||
| Age 15 | 3687 | –0.345 (–0.427 to –0.264) | 1.53E–16 | –1.125 (–1.479 to –0.771) | 5.01E–10 | –0.125 (–0.173 to –0.077) | 3.73E–07 | ||
| Generation R | Age 9 | 1437 | –0.428 (–0.561 to –0.295) | 4.01E–10 | –1.063 (–1.685 to –0.440) | 8.43E–04 | –0.250 (–0.325 to –0.175) | 9.68E–11 | |
| Has myopic parent(s) | ALSPAC | Age 7 | 3320 | –0.257 (–0.313 to –0.202) | 2.07E–19 | –0.250 (–0.364 to –0.136) | 1.81E–05 | –0.125 (–0.158 to –0.092) | 2.22E–13 |
| Age 10 | 3167 | –0.350 (–0.423 to –0.278) | 4.20E–21 | –0.688 (–0.886 to –0.489) | 1.45E–11 | –0.125 (–0.169 to –0.081) | 3.70E–08 | ||
| Age 12 | 2901 | –0.388 (–0.470 to –0.306) | 4.05E–20 | –1.000 (–1.385 to –0.615) | 3.80E–07 | –0.125 (–0.167 to –0.083) | 4.84E–09 | ||
| Age 15 | 2273 | –0.430 (–0.533 to –0.327) | 4.38E–16 | –1.188 (–1.745 to –0.630) | 3.10E–05 | –0.125 (–0.186 to –0.064) | 6.18E–05 | ||
| Generation R | Age 9 | 1537 | –0.345 (–0.468 to –0.221) | 5.69E–08 | –1.313 (–1.801 to –0.824) | 1.60E–07 | –0.188 (–0.262 to –0.113) | 1.02E–06 | |
| Time spent reading high | ALSPAC | Age 7 | 4623 | –0.062 (–0.114 to –0.011) | 1.77E–02 | –0.188 (–0.327 to –0.048) | 8.57E–03 | 0.000 (–0.032 to 0.032) | 1.00E+00 |
| Age 10 | 4480 | –0.104 (–0.170 to –0.038) | 2.09E–03 | –0.438 (–0.672 to –0.203) | 2.52E–04 | 0.000 (–0.039 to 0.039) | 1.00E+00 | ||
| Age 12 | 4098 | –0.153 (–0.227 to –0.079) | 4.86E–05 | –0.750 (–1.111 to –0.389) | 4.75E–05 | –0.062 (–0.106 to –0.019) | 4.77E–03 | ||
| Age 15 | 3209 | –0.211 (–0.303 to –0.119) | 7.04E–06 | –1.125 (–1.642 to –0.608) | 2.03E–05 | –0.062 (–0.104 to –0.021) | 2.86E–03 | ||
| Generation R | Age 9 | 1572 | –0.092 (–0.220 to 0.035) | 1.56E–01 | –0.438 (–1.117 to 0.242) | 2.07E–01 | –0.063 (–0.142 to 0.017) | 1.26E–01 | |
| Time spent outdoors low | ALSPAC | Age 7 | 4660 | –0.051 (–0.100 to –0.001) | 4.60E–02 | –0.062 (–0.140 to 0.015) | 1.15E–01 | 0.000 (–0.031 to 0.031) | 1.00E+00 |
| Age 10 | 4518 | –0.097 (–0.161 to –0.033) | 3.01E–03 | –0.312 (–0.514 to –0.111) | 2.34E–03 | 0.000 (–0.040 to 0.040) | 1.00E+00 | ||
| Age 12 | 4132 | –0.122 (–0.194 to –0.051) | 8.06E–04 | –0.562 (–0.849 to –0.276) | 1.19E–04 | 0.000 (–0.040 to 0.040) | 1.00E+00 | ||
| Age 15 | 3228 | –0.123 (–0.213 to –0.034) | 7.15E–03 | –0.750 (–1.143 to –0.357) | 1.85E–04 | –0.062 (–0.105 to –0.020) | 4.28E–03 | ||
| Generation R | Age 9 | 1963 | –0.051 (–0.160 to 0.058) | 3.63E–01 | –0.313 (–0.850 to 0.225) | 2.54E–01 | 0.063 (0.003 to 0.122) | 4.06E–02 | |
All risk factors were coded as binary variables (0 = lower risk and 1 = higher risk category for myopia). Results for quantile regression are only presented for quantiles 0.05 and 0.50. The sample size at each age varies due to missing information for some risk factors.