Table 1.
A total panel of repurposed drugs mentioned in this review
| Cancer hallmarks | Repurposed drug | Original application | Reported targets/pathways | Clinical trials of cancer |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sustaining proliferative signaling | Rapamycin | Immunosuppressant, anti-restenosis agent | mTOR and associated signaling networks | Rectum, breast, prostate cancer etc. |
| Sustaining proliferative signaling | Prazosin | Hypertension | PKCδ-dependent AKT signaling pathway | Adrenal incidentalomas |
| Sustaining proliferative signaling | Indomethacin | Rheumatic disease | Shc-ERK axis, PKCζ-p38-DRP1 axis, Wnt/β-catenin | Colorectal, esophageal, ovarian cancer etc. |
| Evading growth suppressors | Quinacrine | Malaria, giardiasis, rheumatoid arthritis | p53, FACT-CK2-p53 axis | Prostatic, non-small cell lung cancer etc. |
| Evading growth suppressors | Ritonavir | Human immunodeficiency virus | p53, CDKs-RB axis, AKT-E2F-1-RB axis | Breast cancer, Kaposi’s sarcoma etc. |
| Resisting cell death | Artemisinin and related-derivatives | Malaria | Ferroptosis, autophagy, oncosis, anoikis | Breast, colorectal, lung cancer etc. |
| Resisting cell death | Chloroquine and related-derivatives | Malaria, rheumatoid arthritis | Autophagy, PPT1 | Pancreatic, breast cancer, chondrosarcoma etc. |
| Enabling replicative immortality | Curcumin | Dermatological diseases | hTERT, Wnt/β-catenin, Hippo/YAP | Breast, prostate cancer, multiple myeloma etc. |
| Enabling replicative immortality | Genistein | Menopause, osteoporosis, obesity | hTERT, Wnt/β-catenin | Colorectal, bladder, breast cancer etc. |
| Inducing angiogenesis | Thalidomide | Sedative, antiemetic | Various proangiogenic factors, VEGF receptor, NF-κB | Prostate, ovarian, colorectal cancer etc. |
| Inducing angiogenesis | Itraconazole | Antifungal agent | mTOR-cholesterol trafficking, VDAC1, PDGF-Akt–mTOR axis | Prostate, lung cancer etc. |
| Activating invasion and metastasis | Berberine | Bacterial diarrhea | Ephrin-B2, MMP-2/MMP-9, EMT, miR-101, VEGF | Gastric, colorectal, lung cancer etc. |
| Activating invasion and metastasis | Niclosamide | Antihelminthic drug | Wnt/β-catenin, STAT3, NF-κB | Colorectal, prostate cancer etc. |
| Genome instability and mutation | Triamterene | Diuretic | Nucleotide excision repair, thymidylate synthase | Acute myelocytic leukemia etc. |
| Genome instability and mutation | Mebendazole and related-derivatives | Intestinal helminthiasis | Chk2, Nbs1, PARP-1, DHODH | Medulloblastoma, glioma, astrocytoma etc. |
| Tumor-promoting inflammation | Aspirin | Pain, fever | COX-1/2, ANXA1-NF–κB axis, CDX2, COMMD1–RelA axis | Gastrointestinal, esophageal cancer etc. |
| Tumor-promoting inflammation | Thiocolchicoside | Rheumatologic, orthopedic disorders | NF-κB-related pathways, COX-2 | None |
| Reprogramming energy metabolism | Metformin | Obese type 2 diabetes | AMPK, PI3K-mTOR pathways, BACH1 | Prostate, breast, colorectal cancer etc. |
| Reprogramming energy metabolism | Disulfiram | Alcohol-aversion drug | ALDH, NAD+-dependent proteins | Prostate, breast cancer, melanoma etc. |
| Evading immune destruction | Rotavirus vaccines, Live 17D | Infectious disease | NF-κΒ, Type I interferon pathways, CTLs, Tregs | None |
This table lists existing non-oncology agents for cancer therapy in this review, including targeting cancer hallmarks, original application, reported targets or pathways and related clinical trials in cancer treatment (https://clinicaltrials.gov/).