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. 2020 Jul 2;10:10843. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-67705-z

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Structural equation model (SEM) diagram showing the potential causal pathways of biochar type (a) and application rate (b) on soil properties and N₂O emission. The thickness of arrow represents the strength of the relationship between variables. The values associated with arrows are standardized pathway coefficients, and positive or negative numbers indicating the positive or negative relationships. Values in top right corner of box (endogenous variables) indicate the fraction be explained by the model.