Table 3.
Data extraction of included studies
| Author | Training intervention | Motor-component | Cognitive component | Cognitive measurement | Progression | Control group(s) | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ansai [25] | GDT | Warm up, muscle strengthening, balance, coordination, flexibility | Working memory, inhibition |
MMSE (main scores and subscales) MoCA (main scores and subscales), TUG-DT |
In the complexity of the cognitive task | Physical exercises without DT | No differences between the groups regarding the cognitive outcomes; the MMSE and the visuo-spatial test of the MoCA increased; DTC decreased |
| Azaidian [26] | GDT |
Standing and shifting center of gravity Walking exercises to the front, backwards and sides |
Working memory tasks Verbal fluency tasks Visual search tasks |
Reaction time while (1) sitting, (2) standing, (3) walking, (4) selective (respond to direction of task) Stop Signal Task to measure inhibitory control Working memory with Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale and Digital Symbol substitution test |
Session 1–6 only motor training Session 7–12 motor training with simple cognitive tasks Session 13–24 Task complexity increased |
CG 1: computer- based EF training CG 2: no intervention |
GDT training only improved the Wechsler forward in comparison to control groups EF training improved SST correct answers and wrong answers; stride asymmetry while DT walking |
| Bacha [32] | GDT-EX Xbox Kinect adventure game | Fast multidirectional movements (steps, squats, jumps, coordinated movements of upper and lower limbs; trunk movements in three planes | Reaction time; visuospatial attention, shifting of attention, decision making, immediate planning and execution | MoCA | Not reported | conventional physiotherapy including balance, endurance and muscle strength, motor coordination; stretching | Both groups increased within all performance measurements; the control group increased walking capacity |
| Bisson [44] | Specific Virtual reality DT training | Jiggle a virtual ball while standing | Reaction time; visuospatial attention, immediate planning and execution | Reaction Time test | Not reported | Biofeedback training with shifting the center of mass | No significant group differences; both groups improved in the cognitive task |
| Chuang [45] | GDT-EX - video dance | Stepping forward, backwards and sidewards according to the music and presented steps on a screen (following an arrow) | Reaction time, Attention and visuo-spatial orientation | Flanker task | Not reported |
CG 1: brisk walking CG 2: inactive |
Reaction times decreased in the intervention group as well as in the brisk walking group |
| Eggenberger 2015 [27] | GDT-EX - video dance | Stepping forward, backwards and sidewards according to the music and presented steps on a screen (following an arrow) | Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation |
EF: Trail Making B Long-term visual memory, Long-term verbal memory (story recall) Wechsler Memory scale revised |
Progression adapted to participants abilities |
CG1: treadmill walking memory CG2: walking |
Both DT training groups improved the TMT-B; over a longer period of time the Dance group still improved whereas the memory group declined; same results for the executive control tasks; GDT-EX improved Working memory, attentional control; Go/no-go and set shifting |
| Eggenberger 2016 [33] | GDT-EX - video dance | Stepping forward, backwards and sidewards according to the music and presented steps on a screen (following an arrow) | Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation |
EF: Trail Making B Stroop task Working memory task MoCa Processing speed |
Progression adapted to participants abilities | Balance training on different surfaces | The intervention group improved the Trail making B, MoCA and the Stroop task |
| Falbo [15] | GDT | Physical- cognitive DT training; walking at different speeds; coordination training, balance performance; strengthening, stretching with music together with different cognitive tasks | Inhibition, working memory and set-shifting | Random number generation task to address EF; dual task cost while walking | Rising difficulties (not further described) | Same exercise program under single task condition | The GDT group improved cognitive function |
| Hars [34] | GDT with music | Walking and handling of objects; reaction to the rhythm of the music | Reaction time | MMSE; Frontal assessment battery (FAB) | Progression mentioned but not further described | No intervention | Intervention group increased MMSE |
| Heiden [46] | SDT balance | Body shifting to control virtual paddle | Reaction time; visuospatial attention, immediate planning and execution | Reaction time | Chair based exercise with muscle strengthening | Reaction time decreased in the intervention group | |
| Hiyamizu [35] | GDT balance | Strength training, balance and walking training using different undergrounds in combination with verbal fluency, arithmetic and visual search task |
Working memory Visuospatial tasks |
Trail making A and B Stroop task |
Not reported | Same program but ST | Only Stroop task performance improved in the GDT group |
| Kayama [28] | GDT and SDT (exercises with specific Dual task Tai Chi) | Aerobic training, progressive muscle strengthening, flexibility and balance; rhythmic stepping exercise with cognition; 5 min Dual task Tai Chi at the end | Unclear; Dual task Tai Chi includes visuospatial tasks | Verbal fluency test; Trail making B | Only reported for strengthening | Same training than intervention group without Dual task Tai Chi | the intervention group improved the Delta TMT |
| Kitazewa [36] | SDT net step exercises | Steps within a net in a predefined way; every session learning a new combination; avoid to step on the net; than performing a line with steps in the net while singing a children song | Working memory task | Touch panel type dementia scale; Touch M system addresses visuospatial function; the TDAS is a modification of the Alzheimer’s Desease Asssessment Scale | Increasing of steps and difficulty of the combination | No intervention |
Thouch M score increased more in the intervention group; Naming fingers as part of the TDAS improved in the intervention group |
| MacLean [37] | SDT | Walking with adjusting to the speed of music; ST walking, music walking; DT walking with music and counting backwards | Working memory |
MMSE; TMT A-B; Wechsler memory scale revised Digit span forward and backward; Story recall DT walking |
Not reported |
CG1: walking to music without adjusting CG2: walking without music |
MT training improved DT walking |
| Maillot [29] | GDT-EX (Nintendo Wii) | Body shifting and arm movements in front of the screen or on the Wii balance board |
Visuo spatial tasks Processing speed tasks |
TMT A-B, Stroop test Letter set tests Matrix reasoning test Digit symbol substation test Spatial span test Directional heading test Mental rotation test Cancellation test Number comparison test Reaction time test Plate tapping test |
Not reported | Non active | the intervention group improved in all cognitive tasks except of the visuo spatial tasks |
| Morita [47] | GDT | Mental gymnastics with complicated finger movements; resistance training with DT, aerobic exercises with changing movement directions and DT; flexibility exercises | Working memory; reaction time |
Modified minimental State (3MS) TMT with a touch panel |
Not reported | Not active | Intervention group maintained cognitive status whereas control group decreased |
| Nischiguschi [38] | GDT | Stretching, muscle strength, DT categories (working memory, reaction time, visuospatial tasks) |
Working memory, reaction time Visuospatial tasks |
MMSE; Wechsler memory scale revised TMT A-B; N-Back |
Reported for strength training but no further details | No intervention | Intervention group better results in WMS-R and TMT |
| Ordnung [30] | GDT- EX X box™360 Kinect™ | Whole-body movements to move an avatar on screen |
Attention, visuospatial function, reaction time Shifting and decision making |
Attention while being seated with Test of Attentional Performance; Simple reaction time/Alertness while being seated in front of a computer: response (finger pressing) to a visual stimuli on screen; Working memory (seated) with the n-back task) | Not reported | No intervention | No significant improvement in tested cognitive functions, but improvements in fine motor skills of the left hand |
| Schaettin [39] | GDT-EX | lower extremity movements, stepping according to force platform | Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation | Attention, inhibition, working memory (Test for attentional performance), Cognitive Function (MMSE) | Not reported (warm up 5 min; training 20 min, cool down 5 min) | CG: traditional balance training, static and dynamic exercises, open eyes and closed eyes | Four EF’s increased in the EXG group and one (shifting) in the CG |
| Schoene 2013 [31] | SDT-EX Dance training | Standing, stepping, weight shifting | Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation | Processing speed (Choice stepping reaction time; TMT A), shifting (TMT B), Dual-task costs (TUG-cog) | Frist session supervised by an instructor, follow-up sessions individualized sessions in homes | CG: no intervention | Improvement in step reaction and movement times |
| Schoene 2015 [40] | SDT-EX Dance training | Standing, stepping, weight shifting | Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation | Inhibition (Stoop Stepping Test); Working Memory (letter-digit test, digit span backwards), Processing speed/ Attention (Test for attentional network test, TMTA, CRT+ CSRT; shifting (TMT B); Dual task costs (TUG-cog) | Instruction at the beginning of the trial; conduction unsupervised in individuals’ homes | CG: educational brochure in falls prevention | IG improvement in processing speed and mental rotation, set- shifting increased with a higher dose of game playing; individuals with poorer baseline function in IG showed greater improvement |
| Theill [48] | GDT | Cardiovascular treadmill training; walking | Verbal Working memory | (selective) Attention, working memory, paired associates learning, processing speed, Dual task costs | Not reported |
IG2: working memory training (single) CG: no intervention |
Improvement in executive control, no improvement in selective attention, more improvement in IG in paired associates learning |
| Wollesen 2017a [41] | GDT | Standing, balancing, muscle training |
Working memory, reaction time Visuospatial tasks; task prioritization, task shifting |
Dual tasks costs (walking under DT and ST conditions), Inhibition (seated Stroop Test/ walking while undertaking Stroop Test) | Two phase intervention: Phase 1 (wk. 1–6); training of daily actions with likelihood of fall risks; Phase 2 (wk. 7–12) Task priorization |
IG2 single task strength and resistance CG: no intervention |
No significant improvement in IG1 in cognitive functions |
| Wollesen 2017b [42] | GDT | Walking, standing, balancing, |
Working memory, reaction time Visuospatial tasks; task prioritization, task shifting |
Dual-task costs (walking under ST and DT conditions), Inhibition (verbal Stroop task) | Two phase intervention: Phase 1 (wk. 1–6); training of daily actions with likelihood of fall risks; Phase 2 (wk. 7–12) Task priorization and transfer into daily life |
IG2: ST conditions CG: no intervention |
Reduced number of errors in IG in Stroop test |
| You [43] | SDT | Walking, standing | Memorizing | Working memory (memory recall %) | Not reported | CG: no intervention | Memory performance improved under DT conditions |