Table 1.

Clinical studies regarding the effect of high fibre intake on inflammatory markers in obesity and associated pathology.

Design	Population	Dietary intervention	Outcome	Reference
Randomized cross-over trial	50 Danish subjects with high risk of metabolic syndrome	two 8-week periods of whole grain intake (179 ± 50 g/day)/refined grain (maximum 13 ± 10 g/day of whole grain), divided by a washout period of ≥6 weeks.	↓ body weight, serum inflammatory markers (IL-6, CRP)	Roager et al. (2019)
Double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled, randomized study	45 metabolic syndrome patients risk factors	galactooligosaccharide mixture intervention to increase dietary fibre content, with a 4-wk wash-out period between interventions	↓ faecal calprotectin, CRP	Vulevic et al. (2013)
Randomized controlled trial	143 individuals with metabolic syndrome	12 weeks of rye and whole wheat was compared with a diet containing the equivalent amount of refined cereal foods	no significant effects on the expression of inflammatory markers' genes or insulin sensitivity	Giacco et al. (2013)
Randomized crossover study	19 adults with metabolic syndrome	4-week of arabinoxylan and resistant starch enriched diet versus Western-style, low-fibre diet	↓ faecal calprotectin, IL-23A and NF-κB	Hald et al. (2016)
Crossover intervention study	25 hypercholesterolemic subjects	5-week intervention using low fibre and high fibre diet, separated by a 3-week washout.	↓ CRP and fibrinogen	Johansson-Persson et al. (2014)
Randomized controlled trial	68 overweight with prediabetes	12 weeks of 45 g/d of high-amylose maize (RS2) versus an isocaloric amount of amylopectin (control)	↓ TNF-α, no change in insulin sensitivity	Peterson et al. (2018)
Randomized controlled trial	166 subjects with features of metabolic syndrome	4-week using healthy diet (fruits and vegetables, berries, whole-grain products, rapeseed oil, three fish meals per week) compared to an regular Nordic diet	Control diet: ↑ IL-1 Ra (versus healthy diet group)	Uusitupa et al. (2013)
Crossover study	10 healthy subjects	Subjects received either 910calorie high- carbohydrate/high-fat meal or a standard meal according to American Heart Association (based on fruit and fibre) during the first visit and the other meal during the second visit	↑ oxidative stress (bloodlevels of TBARS, LPS, FFA) and proinflammatory markers (TNFα, and IL-1β)	Dandona et al. (2015)
Randomized controlled trial	28 T2DM patients	Subjects received brown rice (n = 14) or white rice (n = 14) diet for 8 weeks	↓ CRP in brown rice group	Kondo et al. (2017)
Parallel design, dietary intervention trial	104 subjects with metabolic syndrome risk	Subjects received Healthy Diet (n = 44), a whole-grain-enriched diet (n = 42) or a control (n = 45) diet,	Healthy Diet group: ↓ E-selectin Healthy Diet and whole grain group: ↓ CRP	de Mello et al. (2011)
Cross-over, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, study	12 overweight and obese subjects	Subjects received 20 g/day of inulin (high-fermentable fibre) and cellulose (low-fermentable fibre) for 42 days	IPE: ↓ IL-8 levels (versus cellulose)Inulin: no effect on the inflammatory markers	Chambers et al. (2019)
Crossover clinical study	18 subjects at low-to-moderate cardiometabolic risk	Subjects received breakfast either rich in fibre, unsaturated fatty acids (unSFA) or saturated fatty acids (SFA) for 4 weeks	SFA: ↑ IL-1β unSFA: ↓IL-6	Monfort-Pires et al. (2018)
Interventional diet study	21 overweight/obese children	Subjects were placed on a regimen of low-fat, high-fibre diet and daily exercise for 2 weeks	↓ PAI-1, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, resistin, insulin, amylin, leptin, and IL-1ra ↑ adiponectin	Izadpanah et al. (2012)
Randomized, placebo-controlled study	31 hemodialysis patients	Patients received either resistant starch or placebo supplementation, for 4 weeks	↓ IL-6 and TBARS	Esgalhado et al. (2018)
Randomized controlled clinical trial	55 women with T2DM	Subjects received 10 g resistant dextrin/day or a similar amount of maltodextrin for 8 weeks	↓ IL-6, TNF-α and MDA ↑ Insulin sensitivity	Aliasgharzadeh et al. (2015)
Randomized cross-over double-blind placebo-controlled trial	17 obese knee osteoarthritis patients	Patients received freeze-dried strawberries or placebo for 2 periods of 12 weeks with 2 weeks of wash-out	↓ TNF-α and 4-HNE	Basu et al. (2018)
Randomized study	59 T2DM patients	Patients received metformin, acarbose and either a high fibre or a low fibre diet intervention for 8 weeks	Low fibre group: ↓ IL-18	Nowotny et al. (2015)
Crossover study	33 healthy, middle-aged adults	Patients received either high or low in in wholegrain intervention for 6-week periods, separated by a 4-week washout.	Whole grain: a slight decrease of IL-10 and CRP	Ampatzoglou et al. (2016)
Observational study	8 subjects with impaired fasting glucose	subjects received (1) high-fibre formula; (2) high-monounsaturated fatty acid formula or (3) control formula	High fibre group: ↓ NF-κB in PBMCs	Kim et al. (2013)
Randomized controlled clinical trial	60 females with T2DM	Patients received 10 g/d resistant starch or placebo for 8 weeks, respectively	↓TNF-α, no effect on IL-6 or CRP	Gargari et al. (2015)
Crossover clinical trial	80 overweight subjects	Subjects received two isocaloric breakfast interventions -one rich in saturated fat and one in unsaturated fatty acids and fibres for 4 weeks with a 2-weeks washout.	Fibre group: ↓ IF-γ and TNF-α	Monfort-Pires et al. (2018)
Observational study	49 T2DM females	Patients received either 10 g/day inulin or maltodextrin/day for 8 weeks	Inulin: ↓CRP, TNF-α and LPS	Dehghan et al. (2014a)
Randomized controlled clinical trial	52 overweight/obese women with T2DM	Patients received either 10 g/d of oligofructose-enriched inulin or maltodextrin (control) for 8 weeks	oligofructose-enriched-Inulin: ↓ CRP, TNF-α and LPS	Dehghan et al. (2014b)
Randomized crossover clinical trial	44 overweight/obese girls 8–15 years old	Subjects received either whole-grain or control for 2 periods of 6 weeks with 4-week washout period	Whole grain: ↓ CRP, ICAM-1 and leptin	Hajihashemi et al. (2014)