Figure 2.

Summary of the simulation results. (a) A schematic representation of the types of ion-conductive transmembrane pathways induced by an electric field that were observed in the simulations. (b) Graphs show the time of the first Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ion passages through a given pore (see legend) in simulations for all channels. Black dots and black stars show the time at which a lipid pore and a VSD pore, respectively, became stabilized by lipid headgroups (i.e., the time when at least two lipid headgroups were found within 0.5 nm from the middle of the membrane). If a VSD pore became stabilized by lipid headgroups, such pore was called a “complex pore.” The horizontal bars correspond to the simulation length. The text next to each horizontal bar gives the index of the VSD in which the VSD pore or complex pore was formed. The data presented in this figure are also tabulated in Table S2. The scheme on the bottom right shows how ions redistribute around the cell membrane upon exposure to an electric field; on the side facing the positive electrode (anode), the membrane becomes hyperpolarized, whereas on the opposite side, it becomes depolarized. To see this figure in color, go online.