Table 1.

Details of included studies.

No	Author, Year, Country	Research Aims, Theory & Setting	Methods	Participants	Podcasting Intervention	Findings
1	Abate (2013), USA	Aim: Evaluate podcasts design in improving retention and application of pharmacology. Theory: Bloom's Taxonomy used to design the 10-item questionnaire. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: Pilot study with 3 randomized arms; 1) traditional lecture, 2) unsegmented podcast or 3) segmented podcast. Data collection: 10-item MCQ and case study scenario. Analysis: Kruskal-Wallis Test, mean and standard deviation.	Convenience sample of female undergraduate nursing students (lecture n = 12; unsegmented podcast n = 11; segmented podcast n = 12).	Developed: by faculty. GarageBand software, Logitech headphone with a microphone. Content: Pharmacology Duration: Non-segmented podcast was >57 min long and segmented podcast was >51 min long. Access: via1GB flash drives given to all participants. Could be listened to anytime on computers or MP3 players.	90.5% (n = 19/23) students listened to the podcasts. 19% strongly agree and 62% agreed that the podcast helped them remember pharmacology concepts. 25% strongly agreed and 50% agreed that the podcasts helped them apply pharmacological concepts. Students in the segmented podcast group had the highest mean scores in both retention and application assessments.
2	Abedian et al. (2018), Iran	Aim: investigate effects of podcasts on midwifery students' knowledge and educational performance regarding donor egg recipients. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: pre and post-test study. Data collection: a self-designed knowledge measurement questionnaire and objective structured clinical exam. Analysis: Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, independent t-test and Chi-square test, paired t-test.	Undergraduate midwifery students. Two groups allocated randomly to a podcast intervention or usual teaching method (n = 30 per group).	Developed: by faculty. Content: legal and religious issues associated with egg donation. Duration: three MP3 format audio files (25 min each).	The mean knowledge scores on legal and religious issues associated with egg donation were significantly different in both groups (P = 0.004), with a greater difference in the podcast group. No significant differences were observed between them in terms of educational performance (P = 0.63).
3	Blum (2014), USA	Aim: how podcasts could help preceptors learn to approach difficult situations using caring behaviours Theory: Caring principles used to underpin podcast material. Setting: Clinical (large hospital). Quality: Medium.	Design: pre-test/post-test followed by a correlational design. Data collection: 4-part questionnaire measuring demographics, preceptor commitment to role, preceptor's perception of benefit and support scale. Analysis: Descriptive statistics and other analyses on SPSS such as Chronbach alpha and Cohen's f2.	Nurse preceptors (n = 28), who were mentoring students (n = 22) and novice nurses (n = 6).	Developed: by practice staff, nurse educators, preceptors, recent preceptees and a caring expert. Content: Video podcasts of scenarios demonstrating unprofessional behaviour, poor communication skills, inability to show knowledge and skills, and attitude problems. Duration: 5–7 min each. Access: Available through a private YouTube channel and a facility intranet.	Preceptors' perception of support increased after viewing podcasts. The least experienced preceptors reported the greatest benefits in feeling of support. Preceptors liked the convenience of the medium. They also appreciated seeing different points of view in the videos on how to handle issues with nursing students.
4	Blum (2018), USA	Aim: if use of a podcast would increase students' critical thinking abilities. Theory: Diffusion Theory by Surry and Farquhar (1997)Setting: Academic. Quality: Low quality.	Design: pilot interventional study –correlational interventional pretest/posttest design Data collection: 34-item Health Sciences Reasoning Test (HSRT) used to assess critical thinking abilities. Analysis: Repeated-measures analysis of variance, Multiple linear regression.	Convenience sample of nursing students in their final semester (control = 17; intervention = 21) in a state college associate in science program.	Developed: by the researcher. Content: supplemental critical thinking podcast media.	Students who received a podcast had greater increase in critical thinking ability than students who receive standardised education only (F(1, 36) = 1.91, p = .088, Z2 = .050). Increased dose had a positive relationship on gains in critical thinking ability (no statistical significance for overall HSRT scores, F(1, 18) = 1.35, R2 = .037, p = .261).
5	Clay (2011), UK	Aim: can a digital learning object used via a mobile device enhances acquisition of skills in clinical settings. Theory: None reported. Setting: Clinical placement. Quality: Low.	Design: Not explicitly stated. Data collection: Post intervention evaluation questionnaire and a focus group. Analysis: Approach to analysis not described	Convenience sample of midwives enrolled in a postgraduate new-born infant physical examination module (n = 8).	Developed: by faculty. Content: Video files outlining each aspect of a Newborn Infant Physical Examination (NIPE). Duration: 12 weeks. Access: Videos available on a virtual learning environment and downloaded onto iPods for use in clinical settings.	Students liked having access to educational information when and where they needed it. They felt the accuracy and consistency of the video information was very good (n = 5) or excellent (n = 3) and reflected actual clinical practice.
6	Fenton (2014), UK	Aim: evaluate a digital story about a young person's life-threatening condition with nursing students in terms of teaching and learning. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: Not explicitly stated. Data collection: Post intervention evaluation questionnaire (with open-ended questions). Analysis: Approach to analysis not described.	Students registered on an undergraduate nursing programme (n = 40).	Developed: by faculty and a patient. Digital template built using xHTML and CSS in Dreamweaver. Audio files added, embedded with images and links to resources. Content: Audio recording of a young person with leukaemia answering questions. Access: virtual learning environment (Blackboard) to access on a range of devices.	Students felt the digital object was a good resource to help them understand a young patients' perspective, in particular the difficulties she had with inexperienced nurses. The flexibility of the digital learning object appealed to students who could access anytime and it was easy to navigate and use and reflected actual clinical practice.
7	Forbes and Hickey (2008), USA	Aims: Assess the patterns of podcasting using among nursing students and its perceived benefits. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: Not explicitly stated. Data collection: Survey to assess patterns of student use of podcasting and perceived benefits. Analysis: SPSS used for descriptive statistical. Qualitative data analysed using thematic analysis.	Undergraduate nursing students enrolled in 6 core courses where podcasting was being used (n = 170).	Developed: by faculty. Lapel microphone to audio record lectures and audacity software used for editing academic podcasts. Content: Six nursing ‘‘core’’ courses where podcasting was being used across all semesters. Access: Download from Blackboard (virtual learning environment) to computer or mobile device.	95% of students accessed at least one podcast, to review material before an exam (42.4%) and reinforce content after a class (39.4%). Students reported using podcasts to get a better understanding of a difficult topic, help make notes and repeat material to aid learning. Most students listened to podcasts at home on a computer. Only 16% listened via a mobile device like a MP3 player or iPod.
8	Foss et al. (2013), Norway	Aim: Explore nursing students' perceptions of e-compendiums as a learning tool. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: Descriptive quantitative design. Data collection: Questionnaire to evaluate the e-compendium resource. Analysis: Approach to analysis not described.	First semester baccalaureate nursing students over 3 years: 2009, 2010 and 2012 (n = 349).	Developed: by faculty. Content: 16 e-compendiums and podcasts on anatomy and pharmacology, microbiology and basic pharmacology. Access: e-compendium accessible on virtual learning environment (itslearning) and podcasts available through iTunes.	Of those who used anatomy and physiology podcasts 26% of students rated them as very good and 32% as good learning tools. These results were similar for the microbiology podcasts. However, 30% of students did not use the podcasts, which was the highest non-usage % of all the eight learning tools available in the e-compendium.
9	Gipson and Richards (2011), USA	Aim: Evaluate the effect of podcasts on student learning about electrocardiograms (ECGs). Theory None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Medium.	Design: Quasi-experimental pre-test, post-test comparison group design. Data collection: Surveys and an MCQ. Analysis: Mean and standard deviation calculated. Analysis of covariance undertaken.	Convenience sample of first semester, senior baccalaureate nursing students enrolled in a critical care class (n = 19 lecture group, n = 19 podcast group).	Developed: by faculty. Recorded and edited using Microsoft Movie Maker and Apple GarageBand. Content: Podcasts of the ECG lecture material. Duration: 5 h of material. Access: Made accessible on the course website one day before class.	Student learning through podcasts scored no higher than those learning through traditional lectures. Only 28% watched the entire podcasts and 3 students suggested having shorter clips. Students liked being able to dictate the pace of learning via podcasts and felt they were helpful to learning. Some students had difficulty viewing content online.
10	Greenfield (2011), USA	Aim: Report the grade improvement among English as a second language (ESL) nursing students when using podcasts. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: not explicitly stated. Data collection: Combination of exam results and questions posed to six ESL students was used. Analysis: not described.	Non-native English-speaking (ESL) nursing students (n = 6) taking a medical-surgical course.	Developed: by faculty. Podcasts were recorded using a digital MP3 player. Content: Medical-surgical lectures and case study discussions were audio recorded. Duration: 10-15-min podcasts of a 90-min class. Access: posted on Blackboard the online course management system.	Some non-ESL students had slight improvements in their grades after using the podcasts. Students used podcasts to review lecture material, as revision for exams and they helped students to concentrate more in class as they knew they would not miss anything as the lecture was recorded. Students liked the flexibility in learning that podcasts provided and it saved them valuable time.
11	Hargett (2018), USA	Aim: Evaluate commercially prepared podcasts to improve students' critical thinking abilities. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: pilot study. Data collection: online survey. Analysis: not described.	First-year undergraduate bachelor of science in nursing programme (n = 20). Nine students responded to the survey.	Developed: self-select one instructor-selected podcast episode of a commercially prepared podcast (This American Life, Radiolab) to utilise in an assignment. Content: nursing ethics.	All students (100%) reported that the podcasting assignment sparked learning and/or inspired critical thinking or reflection on the topic. Six students (66.6%) reported that they would recommend podcasting assignments be utilised in future courses.
12	Johnston et al. (2010), USA	Aim: Explore the effect of iPod use on the grades of nursing. Theory: Bloom's taxonomy of learning and social constructivism theory. Setting: Academic. Quality: Medium.	Design: Quasi-experimental comparison pilot study. Data collection: pre and post surveys, weekly user logs and focus groups. Analysis: ANOVA analysis using contrasts, correlations and t-tests, along with descriptive statistics.	Two cohorts of undergraduate nursing students (n = 43) in a third semester medical-surgical course (3 experimental, 1 control & 1 super user group).	Developed: Sony digital PD150 camera used to record lectures. Edited using Final Cut Pro. Content: Medical-surgical lectures were audio-recorded. Duration: 120 min in length. Access: Audio-visual data were compressed to MPEG-4 files for video web streaming. Podcasts given to students on Apple iPods.	The use of iPods tended to be associated with poorer grades. The grades were also poorer with more iPod exposure (p = 0.012). Learning style (visual or verbal/written) and working preference (alone versus collaborate with others) did not moderate the effects of iPods on grades.
13	Kardong-Edgren and Emerson (2010), USA	Aim: Evaluate students use and perceptions of podcasting. Theory: Uses and Gratification Expectancy (UGE) model. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: Descriptive study. Data collection: online course survey (16 questions some open ended). Analysis: Zoomerang survey tool calculated percentages.	Undergraduate nursing students (n = 210).	Developed: by faculty. Content: Lectures on 3 courses, pathophysiology and pharmacology, acute and chronic illness in adults and child bearing nursing, audio-recorded. Access: listen to the podcast lecture from their computers or download it to an iPod or MP3 player through Blackboard.	33% of students reported listening to podcasts 1–2 times. 88% of students reported podcasts improved their understanding of material and 77% felt podcasts made a difference in their course grades. 46% used laptops to listen to podcasts. 73% listed to the entire podcast, whereas the remainder listened to them in sections. 17% listened while performing other activities.
14	Kemp et al. (2010), USA	Aim: Examine perceptions of podcasts and relationship to lecture attendance and grade. Theory: Technology Acceptance Model. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: not explicitly stated. Data collection: class attendance record and survey used. Analysis: Pearson's correlation used to analyse survey data.	Convenience sample of second semester undergraduate nursing students (n = 50).	Content: Podcasts of classroom lectures.	36% reported listening to podcasts for 4–5 h per week, with 18% listening for more than 8 h per week. Statistically significant negative relationship between the hours spent listening to podcasts and class attendance n(50) = −2.88, p = .043 and final course grade n(50) = -2.19, p = .127.
15	Lyons (2013), USA	Aim: Evaluate the impact of digital storytelling on students' reflective thinking in a research course. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: Comparative study with two groups (no control group). Data collection: questionnaire and anecdotal feedback from students. Analysis: Approach to analysis not described.	Convenience sample of undergraduate nursing students. First study (online forum) n = 19, Second study (podcast) n = 20.	Developed: by faculty, librarian and students. Content: First study - Six online discussion forums about research. Second study - VoiceThread used to develop digital stories of search strategies and research skills. Access: online learning management system.	Students felt engaged with the digital stories and liked the practical application of their colleagues' input. Some students found logging on, navigating and recording stories digitally difficult.
16	McKinney and Page (2009), UK	Aim: Evaluate nursing students' views towards learning pathophysiology via multimedia resources. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: not explicitly stated. Data collection: Post intervention questionnaires with open ended questions. Analysis: Quantitative data analysed via SPSS. Content analysis was applied to the qualitative data.	Convenience sample of final year undergraduate nursing students (n = 125).	Developed: by faculty. Content: Two lectures from Applied Biomedical Sciences were recorded and made available as a video stream and as a vodcast or podcast. Access: Students accessed material on iPods and MP3 players (n = 35/125) and personal computers.	Most students (89%) felt the podcast/vodcast improved their understanding of pharmacology as they could revisit material many times, especially at exam time for revision. The flexibility and convenience of accessing learning resources online appealed to most students. Mobile devices were particularly useful on the move.
17	McSwiggan and Campbell (2017), UK	Aim: explore students' experiences of using podcasts for assessment guidance and feedback. Theory: Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory. Setting: Academic. Quality: High.	Design: exploratory qualitative pilot study. Data collection: four focus groups. Analysis: framework approach underpinned by the theoretical framework put forward by Self-Efficacy Theory.	Purposive sample of third-year undergraduate nursing students (n = 18).	Developed: by faculty. Content: podcasts to help students understand assessment guidance and feedback in relation to a scenario-based summative examination.	Podcasts appeared to strengthen self-efficacy by providing readily accessible support and by helping students convert intentions into action. Students with high self-efficacy in relation to preparing for assessment were more likely to engage with feedback, whereas those with low self-efficacy tended to overlook opportunities to access feedback due to feelings of helplessness and futility.
18	Meade et al. (2009), UK	Aim: evaluate student perception and student use of podcasts of pharmacology lectures and compare exam results. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Design: not explicitly stated. Data collection: 21-item survey on patterns and reasons for podcast use and their perceived usefulness as a learning tool. Usage metrics gathered from WebCT. Analysis: SPSS used to analyse frequencies and percentages.	Graduate (post-registration) nurse non-medical prescribing students (n = 30 September 2017 course and n = 39 January 2018 course).	Developed: by faculty and IT services. Content: Audio recordings of live pharmacology lectures, seven in total. Edited using Audacity software. Material divided into bite-size chunks. MP3 format. 2–4 h to produce. Access: streamed via the virtual learning environment WebCT or downloaded to an MP3 player for mobile learning.	Majority (n = 63) accessed at least one podcast. Most students listened to the podcasts on a computer (81%) and 7% downloaded them to a mobile device. Most students listened to podcasts to revisit lecture material or answer a specific question. A minority listened as they missed the lecture. Most students rated podcasts as a very helpful or helpful learning and revision tool to understand pharmacology.
19	Meade et al. (2011), UK	Aim: examine how and why students accessed podcasts, its value for learning, and identify barriers and facilitators to use. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Medium.	Design: qualitative. Data collection: semi-structured interviews (20–35 min). Analysis: Thematic analysis using template analysis.	Non-medical prescribing graduate nurses (n = 7). Purposive sample of students from high (n = 4), medium (n = 2) and low (n = 1) podcasting use groups.	Developed: by faculty. Content: podcasts of seven pharmacology lectures. Access: through WebCT.	Students used podcasts to revisit pharmacology lectures and understand complex subjects, for revision purposes and exam preparation, or if they missed a lecture. Slow internet connections and not owning a MP3 player or other device prevented use, as did difficulties downloading due to poor technical skills.
20	Meek et al. (2012), USA	Aim: explore effect of a video podcast on ability to apply health informatics concepts, use the technology and satisfaction with course. Theory: None reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Medium.	Design: quasi experimental cross-over (8 week) study. Data collection: technology self-assessment and satisfaction survey. Analysis: Statistical analyses such as t tests and a Pearson correlation matrix via SPSS.	Masters nursing students (n = 15) assigned to two groups; one podcast and the second the usual course.	Developed: by faculty. Content: Online lecture, followed by podcast of health informatics competencies, and reflective postings. Access: available via online course environment.	No significant differences in student cognition or engagement scores between the two educational interventions. Course satisfaction was higher for podcasting.
21	Mostyn et al. (2013), UK	Aim: Explore the perceptions of nursing students on biology podcasts for their learning. Theory: none reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Medium.	Design: Mixed methods study. Data collection: survey on perceived usefulness of podcasts and focus groups. Analysis: Frequencies, means, standard deviations, chi squares, Mann-Whitney U test were calculated. Framework technique used for qualitative data.	Convenience sample of 1st year Diploma/BSc (Hons) nursing students (n = 153 survey; n = 6 focus groups).	Developed: by faculty. Content: Nine live biology science lectures were recorded by lecturing staff. Access: Podcasts made available through WebCT.	Most students (59%) accessed the podcasts 1–3 times. Students listened to the podcasts mainly via their computer (70%) or MP3 player (6%). Most students used them to revisit a lecture (73%) or revise subject material (83%) and thought they were a useful learning tool (83%), revision aid (83%) and promoted understanding of material (72%). Difficulties locating and downloading podcasts and poor sound quality of some recorded lectures.
22	Price et al. (2015), USA	Aim: Explore the impact of digital stories in understanding palliative care concepts and what IT elements support this process. Theory: none reported. Setting: Academic: Quality: Low.	Study design: comparative pilot study. Data collection: pilot study - online survey, main study - pre and post intervention survey and online evaluation. Follow up focus groups. Analysis: Content analysis for qualitative data. Quantitative analysis not described.	Fourth year nursing students (n = 66 in pilot; n = 68 in main study).	Developed: by faculty and students. Content: pilot – voice -over Microsoft PowerPoint (PPT) about palliative care (4-person panel of patients and/or families shared personal stories), main study - students used VoiceThread to record content and narration on personal/professional experiences of palliative care. Access: VoiceThread used to share digital resources.	Students felt they could relate to real live stories, which helped them understand palliative care content and concepts and apply them to practice. Students liked the creativity of digital storytelling as they could put their knowledge and personal experiences together and felt VoiceThread was easy to use.
23	Rogan and San Miguel (2013), Australia	Aim: Evaluate the use of an online terminology tool, podcasts and vodcasts to develop clinical communication skills and practice readiness. Theory: none reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Study design: Action research approach. Data collection: evaluation surveys. Analysis: Descriptive statistics and content analysis.	First year undergraduate nursing students including English as a second language (ESL) students from China, Korea, Nepal and Vietnam (n = 131 ESL; n = 161 English speaking).	Developed: by faculty and students. Content: Online terminology tool with 200 clinical words audio-recorded with associated images (converted to podcast). Six vodcasts of nurses communicating with patients and staff in typical first year scenarios. Access: university website, download to MP3 players and on iTunes.	The vodcasts were more popular than the podcasts with 34.3% using them. Both resources were used more by the ESL students than the English-speaking ones. The majority of ESL students felt podcasts and vodcasts helped them be better prepared & confident for clinical placement, especially in pronouncing and spelling words. Students like the convenience of the digital resources for learning but some were unaware of the digital learning resources.
24	Schlairet (2010), USA	Aim: Create podcasts of classroom lectures and explore student outcomes when using these. Theory: web-based learning environments by Billings. Setting: Academic. Quality: Medium.	Study design: not explicitly stated. Data collection: demographic information sheet, opinionnaire on attitude to computers and surveys on podcast use. Analysis: not described in detail, Chronbach's alpha calculated for the computer opinionnaire.	Three student groups including undergraduate (n = 40), second degree (n = 23) and graduate (n = 7) nursing students (n = 70 in total).	Developed: by faculty. Content: iPod audio player and a universal microphone adapter were used to create the podcast of classroom lectures (n = 133), 82% had accompanying PowerPoint slides. Equipment costs were <$200. Access: course management software via laptop or desktop computer. Duration: average length was 22.5 min.	No significant difference in attitudes towards computers by group before or after using podcasting. 47% of students reported accessing podcasts and no significant differences by group. Undergraduate students listened to podcasts to reinforce learning, second-degree to prepare for exams and graduate to clarify content. 50% of students rated podcasting as helpful for learning.
25	Stiffler et al. (2011), USA	Aim: Compare online reading to a podcast to determine graduate nursing students' preferences and usage. Theory: none reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Study design: pilot study. Data collection: survey to determine access and utility of the podcast. Analysis: not described.	Convenient sample of graduate nurses (n = 17) either clinical nurse specialist or nurse practitioner students.	Developed: by faculty. Content: podcast of a research teaching unit. Access: online course management system and iTunes. Duration: 7-min.	All students listened to the entire podcast. 38% listened to the podcast more than once; 50% three times and 12% four times. Majority (82%) multi-tasked and completed other activities e.g. taking notes while listening to podcast. However, more students found the written material clearer and easier to understand than the podcast.
26	Vogt et al. (2010), USA	Aim: Examine impact of podcasts on student learning and satisfaction. Theory: none reported. Setting: Academic. Quality: Low.	Study design: comparative study of lectures (2007 class) versus podcasts (2008 class). Data collection: MCQ on clinical content and satisfaction survey (2008 cohort only). Analysis: not described in detail but T-tests used.	Junior nursing students enrolled on a child health clinical course. 2007 class (n = 63) and 2008 class (n = 57).	Developed: by faculty. Content: children's nutritional needs, dental health, sleep requirements, discipline, safety concerns, growth and development, immunizations etc. Access: download to any MP3 player or stream to a computer via the course management system.	Podcasts were listened to in multiple settings. No significant difference between the two groups in their exam results. Although 61% were happy with the podcasting experience, most students preferred traditional lectures and found podcasts less useful for doing homework and quizzes.