Table 3a.

Risk factors for IDA by cause.

3.1 Increased iron demands

Prematurity

Infancy

Adolescence, especially in females

Pregnancy

Lactation

Regular blood donation

Competitive athletics

3.2 Diminished iron supply

Prolonged breastfeeding without iron supplementation beyond the fourth month of life

Consumption of infant formula low in iron

Introduction of fresh cow’s milk before the first birthday

Daytime bottle use beyond the twelfth month of life

Bottle use in bed

Preferred consumption of poultry over red meat, vegan and vegetarian diets

3.3 Blood loss

Traumatic or operative blood loss

Gastrointestinal bleeding: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), stomach cancer, colon cancer, colonic polyps, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, chronic Helicobacter pylori infection, hookworm infection, angiodysplasia

Gynecological bleeding: Menorrhagia, uterine fibroids, endometrial carcinoma, use of intrauterine devices over contraceptive pills for birth control

Urological bleeding: Schistosomiasis, bladder cancer, glomerulonephritis, kidney trauma

Pulmonary bleeding: Lung tuberculosis, congenital lung malformations, lung cancer, idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis, Goodpasture’s syndrome, etc.

Bleeding diathesis (congenital or acquired)

3.4 Malabsorption of iron

Celiac disease (gluten sensitive enteropathy)

Atrophic gastritis, gastric surgery

Decreased gastric acidity (e.g., antacids, H2 blockers, protein-pump inhibitors)

Iron Refractory Iron Deficiency Anemia (IRIDA)