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. 2020 Jun 17;9(6):532. doi: 10.3390/antiox9060532

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© 2020 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Major routes of p53 activation triggered by carotenoids-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced. (A) E3 ubiquitin ligases MDM2 and MDM4 mediated proteasomal degradation in non-stress cells; (B) Kinases-mediated activation in cancer cells, and (C) Direct redox activation by S-glutathionylation of redox-sensitive cysteine residues at 124, 135, 141, and 277 of DNA-binding domain. ATM: ataxia telangiectasia mutated; ATR: ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related (a serine/threonine-protein kinase); DNA-PK: DNA-dependent protein kinase.