Figure 1.

Effects of AR/Androgen signaling in immunity and prostate cancer. AR/androgens can influence different immune cell subsets, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells (Left part of the figure). Overall, their effect is immunosuppressive. In addition, androgens/AR directly and indirectly promote prostate cancer (PCa) via different mechanisms (Right part of the figure). Thus, the combination of ADT with immune checkpoint blockade could foster anti-tumor immune responses (ICB+ADT) while ADT additionally inhibits PCa directly. This combination strategy has resulted in improved patient responses compared to either monotherapy in Phase 2 clinical trials. Confirmatory Phase 3 trials are warranted and ongoing. NTD, N-terminal domain; DBD, DNA binding domain; LBD, ligand biding domain; DHT, dihydrotestosterone; ADT, androgen deprivation therapy; ICB, immune checkpoint blockade; PCa, prostate cancer; PSA, prostate specific antigen.