Table 2.
Immune mechanisms involved in CoV infection, cancer, chemotherapy and immunotherapy (responsive and resistant immune system).
| Host condition | Neutrophils, monocytes |
T cells | B cells | Dendritic cells | Other cell populations, soluble mediators |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CoV infection | ↑ cytokine production | ↑ activation | ↑ complement protein production (C3a, C5a) | ↑ IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-21 | |
| ↑ Th17 polarization | |||||
| ↑ CD4+ apoptosis | |||||
| ↓ CD4+ recruitment in lung tissue | |||||
| ↑ CD8+ infiltration in lung tissue | ↓ maturation process | ↑ MIF, MCP-1 | |||
| ↑ viral clearance and immune injury | ↓ MHC class I expression | ↑ TNF α/β | |||
| ↓ T reg | ↓ viral Ag presentation | ↑ type I IFN | |||
| ↑ cytokine production | ↑ VEGF | ||||
| ↑ neutrophils and monocytes recruitment | |||||
| Cancer | ↑ polarization of N2 immunosuppressive neutrophils | ↑ T reg | ↑ B reg | ↓ tumor Ag expression | ↑ TNF α |
| ↑ Th 17 | |||||
| ↑ anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages | ↑ expression of immune checkpoint ligands | ↓ MHC class I and II expression | ↑ TGF β | ||
| ↑ exhaustion | ↑ IL-10 | ||||
| ↑ MDSC | ↓ proliferation and activation | ↑ IFN-γ production | |||
| Cytotoxic chemotherapy | ↓ MDSC activity (gemcitabine, 5FU, CDDP, doxorubicin) | ↑ CD8+ cross priming (gemcitabine, anthracyclines) | ↑ activation (anthracyclines, taxanes, | ↑ IFN-γ production | |
| ↑ CXCL10 | |||||
| ↑ CD4+ phenotype expression (cyclophosphamide, paclitaxel) | cyclophosphamide, vinca alkaloids, methotrexate) | ↑ IL-1 β | |||
| ↓ T reg activity (cyclophosphamide, 5FU, paclitaxel, CDDP) | ↑ tumor cell recognition and lysis (cyclophosphamide, 5FU, paclitaxel, CDDP, doxorubicin) | ||||
| Immunotherapy (responsive immune system) | ↑ tumor Ag-specific T cell response | ↑ IFN-γ production | |||
| ↑ T cell migration and activation | ↑ co-stimulatory molecules expression (CD80, CD86, OX40, GITR, CD40) | ||||
| ↑ CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes | |||||
| Immunotherapy (resistant immune system) | ↑ MDSC | ↑ T reg | ↓ migration and maturation | ↓ chemokines expression (epigenetic silencing) | |
| ↑ Th 2 | |||||
| ↓ priming | |||||
| ↓ T cell function | ↑ PD-L1, endothelin B receptor | ||||
| ↓ T CD8+ tumor cell recognition | ↓ tumor Ag expression | ↑ CD73-adenosine | |||
| ↑ expression of immune checkpoint molecules (TIM-3, LAG-3, VISTA, BTLA) | ↓ MHC class I and II expression | ↑ IFN-γ pathway | |||
| ↑ VEGF | |||||
| ↑ exhaustion | ↑ IL-8 |
Abbreviations: Ag, antigen; BTLA, B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator; CD, cluster of differentiation; CDDP, cisplatin; CXCL10, C-X-C motif chemokine 10; GITR, glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; LAG-3, lymphocyte activation gene 3; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; MDSC, myeloid-derived suppressor cell; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; MIF, macrophage migration inhibitory factor; PD-L1, programmed-death ligand 1; TGF, transforming growth factor; Th, T helper cell; TIM-3, T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; T reg, T regulatory cell; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; VISTA, V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation; 5FU, 5-fluorouracil.