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Paracrine Effects of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Bone Regeneration. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can participate in bone regeneration by secreting bioactive molecules such as Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), interleukin−6 (IL-6), and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) (140–143).
