Figure 1.

Advanced vaccination technologies and strategies for improving compliance and coverage. Key drug delivery systems to overcome barriers associated with each administration route are presented: (a) nasal and pulmonary immunisation using particulate delivery systems such as lipid-based systems (liposomes or nanocapsules), polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), gold NPs, self-assembled NPs (e.g., chitosan), dendrimers, and micelles; (b) oral immunisation using delivery systems such as hydrogels, scaffolds, and particles (nano- and microparticles); (c) cutaneous immunisation can be performed using microneedles, scaffolds, hydrogels, nano- and microparticles; (d) advanced technologies for improving vaccine manufacture and delivery, such as single-dose immunisation using polymeric NPs, and vaccine encapsulation using emulsions or microfluidics systems. Figure prepared using BioRender.