Table 3.
Immunopotentiators for pulmonary and nasally delivered vaccines.
| Immunopotentiator | Pathogen/Antigen | Administration | Animal Model | Immunity Type Generated | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacterial TLR agonists | |||||
| Lipopeptides: TLR-1/2 agonists | Mycobacterium tuberculosis | Nasal | Mice | Th1; Th17 | [49] |
| Lipopolysaccharide: TLR-4 agonist | Human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 | Nasal | Mice | Th1; IgA; IgG | [30] |
| Peptidoglycan: TLR-2/4 agonists | Respiratory syncytial virus | Nasal | Mice | Th1; Th2 | [50] |
| Flagellin: TLR-5 agonist | Influenza A virus | Nasal | Mice | Th1; CD8+ T cells; IgA; IgG | [51] |
| CpG DNA: TLR-9 agonist | Foot and mouth disease virus | Nasal | Guinea pig | IgA; IgG | [42] |
| Viral TLR agonists | |||||
| Double stranded RNA: TLR 3 agonist | Human parainfluenza virus type 3 virus | Nasal | Mice; Cotton rats; Pigs | Th1; IgA | [52] |
| Guanosine analogues: TLR-7/8 agonists | Entamoeba histolytica | Nasal | Mice | Th1; Th17; IgA; IgG | [53] |
| STING agonist: Cyclic dinucleotide GMP–AMP | H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, H7N9 Influenza | Nasal | Mice; Ferrets | Th1; CD8+ T cells; IgA; IgG | [54] |
| Cytokines | |||||
| Type I Interferons (IFN) | Influenza | Nasal | Mice | IgA; IgG | [55] |
| IFN-γ | Yersinia pestis | Nasal | Mice | IgA; IgG | [56] |
| GM-CSF | HIV-1 | Nasal | Mice | IgA; IgG | [57] |
| IL-12 | HIV | Nasal | Mice | Th1; CD8+ T cells; IgA; IgG | [58] |
| IL-15 | Simian immunodeficiency virus | Pulmonary | Mice | Th1; CD8+ T cells; ADCC | [59] |
| IL-18 | HIV | Nasal | Mice | Th1; CD8+ T cells | [60] |
| FLT-3 ligand | Chlamydia abortus | Nasal | Mice | Th1; IgA; IgG | [61] |
ADCC, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity; CpG, cytidine-phosphateguanosine; FLT-3, Fms-Like tyrosine kinase 3; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; GMP-AMP, guanosine monophosphate–adenosine monophosphate; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HN, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase; IL, interleukin; STING, stimulator of interferon genes; TLR, toll-like receptor.