Table 1.

Biomarkers of Brain Damage Induced by Radiotherapy.^a

Physiological conditions	Biomarkers	References
Inflammation	Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) Interleukin (IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-8) Inducible nitric oxide synthase Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2	9,18,81
Cell activation and damage	Glial fibrillary acidic protein Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) Vascular cell adhesion molecule Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) Antiaquaporin-4 antibodies Neuron-specific enolase S100 calcium-binding protein B Myelin basic protein Cerebrospinal fluid oxysterols Proteolyzed N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibodies Endothelial monocyte-activating Polypeptide-II cytokine Nitrotyrosine	14,82-85
Angiogenesis	Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) Angiopoietin (Ang-1, Ang-2, Ang-3, and Ang-4) Tyrosine-protein kinase (Tie 2)	18,86-89
DNA damage and repair	p53-Binding protein 1 Gamma histone protein from the H2A family (γ-H2AX) Dicentric chromosomes Micronucleus (MicroRNA) O6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT)	14,90-93

^a Peripheral blood plasma was used to analyze biomarkers for inflammation, cell activation and damage and angiogenesis, and peripheral lymphocytes with complete DNA for DNA damage and repair.