Table 1.
Study characteristics.
| Authors (publication year) | Criteria for electronic and conventional pain assessments | Study design | Sample size | Population (age, sex, pain condition) | Electronic data collection modality and pain data collected | Conventional data collection method and pain data collected | Duration of data collection |
| Allena et al (2012) [25] | Acceptability, data completeness, and ease | Not specified | 85 | Mean age 39.7 (SD 10.2) years, 68 females and 17 males, medication overuse headache | PDAa program collecting data on pain intensity (no indication of measure), pain sensory characteristics, associated symptoms, possible trigger factors and medication use | Paper-based tool (no indication if questions were the same across formats); prospective recording of attack characteristics, more accurate descriptions | Participants completed both formats daily for 7-10 days |
| Athale et al (2004) [26] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, crossover | 43 | Mean age not specified (range 18-75+ years), 36 females and 7 males, rheumatoid arthritis | Computer program collecting data on VASb-rated pain intensity, pain sensory characteristics, and affective and functional impact of pain | Paper-based tool (different from electronic format only in that pain and swelling locations are indicated on separate body maps) | Participants completed each format once |
| Bandarian-Balooch et al (2017) [27] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, and score equivalence | Randomized, controlled trial | 181 | Mean age 26.5 (range 18-55) years, 146 female and 35 males, headache and migraine | Mobile phone or computer program collecting NRSc-rated pain intensity, frequency, and duration data as well as triggers and medication use | Paper-based tool with one subgroup identical to electronic format and the other a long-form report representative of conventional paper diaries | Participants completed assigned format once per day for 30 days |
| Bedson et al (2019) [28] | Data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 21 | Median age 62 (IQR 50-70) years, 13 females and 8 males, musculoskeletal pain | Tablet program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity and pain interference, as well as sleep disturbance, analgesic use, mood, and side effects | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic study) | Participants completed electronic assessment 2 times per day for 4 weeks and the paper-based tool once at baseline and once at study completion |
| Bishop et al (2010) [29] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 167 | Complete age data not reported, (range 18-78), complete sex data not reported, back pain | Computer program collecting data on the occurrence of pain interference (RMDQd) | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once in random order on the same day |
| Blum et al (2014) [30] | Acceptability, ease, and efficiency | Crossover (randomization procedure not stated) | 62 | Median age 63.5 (range 23-86) years, 31 females and 31 males, cancer | PDA program (E-MOSAIC) collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, medication use, and other symptoms | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once with a 1-hour washout between periods |
| Byrom et al (2018) [31] | Score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 155 | Mean age 48.6 (SD 13.1) years (range 19-69), 83 females and 72 males, chronic pain | Mobile phone or tablet program collecting data on VAS- and NRS-related pain intensity, as well as VRSe-rated pain intensity (SF-36f) | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once with a 30- to 60- min washout between periods |
| Castarlenas et al (2015) [22] | Acceptability, score equivalence | Crossover (randomization procedure not stated) | 191 | Mean age 14.6 (range 12-18) years, 117 females and 74 males, pain somewhere in their body in the last 3 months | Mobile phone program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity | Verbally administered tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each version once |
| Chiu et al (2019) [32] | Score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 138 | Mean age VAS group 55 (SD 14) years, 54 females and 19 males, postoperative pain; mean age NRS group 53 (SD 13) years, 39 females and 26 males, postoperative pain | Mobile phone program collecting data on VAS- and NRS-rated pain intensity | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once with a 5-min washout between periods |
| Christie et al (2014) [33] | Data completeness and score equivalence | Crossover (randomization procedure not stated) | 21 | Median age 49.7 (SD 12.2) years, 16 females and 5 males, inflammatory rheumatic disease | Mobile phone program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity, fatigue, stiffness and daily activity or function | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format on alternate days for 28 days |
| Cook et al (2004) [34] | Acceptability, ease, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 189 | Mean age 47.5 (SD 12.8) years, 119 females and 70 males, chronic pain | Computer program collecting data on VAS- and NRS-rated pain intensity and the affective impact of pain (SF-MPQg). PDIh was also used. | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format). | Participants completed both formats once with a 45-min washout between periods |
| Cunha-Miranda et al (2015) [35] | Score equivalence | Nonrandomized, crossover | 134 | Mean age 51.3 (SD 12.0) years, 100 females and 34 males, arthritis | Tablet program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity and interference, as well as other disease and quality of life metrics dependent on participant diagnosis | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format). | Participants completed each format with a 15-min washout between periods |
| Fanciullo et al (2007) [36] | Acceptability and score equivalence | Crossover (randomization procedure not stated) | 54 | Median age 10.7 (SD 4.0) years, 26 females and 28 males, various causes of pain (eg, broken bones, infections, and cancer) | Computer program collecting data on pain intensity from an investigator-developed computer faces scale | Paper-based tool (Wong-Baker Faces Scale) | Participants completed both formats once |
| Freynhagen et al (2006) [37] | Ease | Nonrandomized, cohort | 717 | Mean age 56.0 years (SD not stated), sex ratio not specified, chronic pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, functional disability, and depression | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed either format once |
| Gaertner et al (2004) [38] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 24 | Mean age 49.9 (SD 15.1) years, 13 females and 11 males, various painful conditions (eg, cancer, osteoarthritis, chronic neuropathic pain) | PDA program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity, analgesic use, other symptoms and therapies | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format daily for 14 days |
| Garcia-Palacios et al (2013) [39] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 47 | Mean age 48.1 (SD 8.0) years, 47 females, fibromyalgia | Mobile phone program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity, fatigue, and faces scale-rated mood. BPIi and fatigue scale were also used. | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed the electronic assessment 3 times per day for 1 week and the paper-based tool once per week |
| Heiberg et al (2007) [40] | Acceptability, data completeness, efficiency, and score equivalence | Crossover (randomization procedure not stated) | 38 | Mean age 58.4 (SD 12.9) years, 25 females and 12 males, rheumatoid arthritis | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, fatigue, and global disease activity, as well as NRS-rated pain intensity (RADAIj) daily, and VRS-rated pain intensity and interference (SF-36) and additional questions on daily functioning collected weekly | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format for 42 days or 6 weeks (21 days/3 weeks for each format) |
| Hofstedt et al (2019) [41] | Acceptability and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 70 | Mean age 51.7 (SD 13.2) years, 53 females and 17 males, arthritis | Computer, tablet, or mobile phone program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, global health, and fatigue, as well as disease activity and functional index for a subset of patients | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed the electronic format at least once during the week before a clinic appointment and the conventional format once at the appointment |
| Jaatun et al (2014) [42] | Acceptability, ease, score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 92 | Age range 20-90 years, 33 females and 59 males, cancer | Tablet program collecting data on pain location from an investigator-developed pain map | Paper-based tool collecting pain location data from the BPI | Participants completed both formats once a 20-30-min washout between periods |
| Jamison et al (2001) [15] | Data completeness and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 36 | Mean age 42.6 (SD 7.0) years, 20 females and 16 males, chronic low back pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity each hour for 16 waking hours as well as number of sleep hours | Paper-based tool collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity for each waking hour and telephone-based NRS-pain intensity over the preceding week | Participants completed formats for 1 year. |
| Jamison et al (2002) [43] | Score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 24 | Mean age 34.4 (range 19-57) years, 19 females and 5 males, healthy volunteers holding weights heavy enough to induce pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format 21 times on 1 day |
| Jamison et al (2006) [44] | Score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 21 | Mean age 42.0 (SD 4.9) years, 9 females and 12 males, low back pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, as well as the affective and functional impact of pain, medications, and side effects | Telephone interviews collecting data on recalled NRS-rated pain over the previous week and telephone-based NRS-pain intensity over the preceding week | Participants completed the electronic format at least daily for 1 year. |
| Jonassaint et al (2015) [45] | Score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 15 | Median age 29 (range 16-54) years, 6 females and 9 males, sickle cell disease | Mobile phone program collecting VAS-rated pain intensity, location and perceived severity, and treatment strategies. | Paper-based tool collecting data on VAS-rated pain (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants first completed paper-based tool, then electronic version daily for 28 days. |
| Junker et al (2008) [46] | Data completeness and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 198 | Mean age 56.5 (SD 13.9) years, 114 females and 84 males, chronic pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity recalled pain over previous 4 weeks, recalled worst pain in previous 4 weeks and a summative pain score | Paper-based tool (different from electronic format in that pain intensity rated on NRS) | Participants completed each format once |
| Khan et al (2019) [47] | Acceptability and data completeness | Randomized, cohort | 78 | Mean age 52.7 (SD 11.1) years, 78 females, postoperative pain | Computer, mobile phone, or tablet program collecting data on data on NRS-related pain intensity, as well as pain catastrophizing, preoperative anxiety, and somatic preoccupation presurgery and medication use and adverse events postsurgery | Paper- or in-person verbal tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format twice daily on postoperative days 1, 2, 3, and 9 and at a 3-month follow-up visit |
| Kim et al (2016) [48] | Acceptability and efficiency | Nonrandomized, cohort | 96 | Mean age not specified, 59 females and 37 males, spinal disorders | Tablet program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, disability, as well as questions related to the nature of pain and alleviating and aggravating pain factors | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in electronic format) | Each format used for a variable and unspecified number of times |
| Koho et al (2014) [49] | Acceptability, ease, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 94 | Mean age 47.0 (SD 8.0) years, 55 females and 39 males, chronic musculoskeletal pain | Computer program collecting data on the affective impact of pain | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format twice on two consecutive days |
| Kvien et al 2005 [50] | Acceptability, efficiency, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, crossover | 30 | Mean age 61.6 (range 49.8-70.0) years, 19 females and 11 males, rheumatoid arthritis | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, fatigue, and patient global evaluation of their disease, NRS-rated pain intensity (RADAI), VRS-rated pain intensity and interference (SF-36), and additional questions on daily functioning | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format on 2 occasions 5 to 7 days apart |
| MacKenzie et al (2011) [51] | Acceptability, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 63 | Mean age 53.0 (range 28.0-82.0) years, 29 females and 34 males, psoriatic arthritis | Computer program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity (HAQk), VRS-rated pain intensity and interference (SF-36) and additional questions on health and arthritis-related symptoms and function | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once 1 hour apart |
| Marceau et al (2007) [52] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 36 | Mean age 48.0 (SD 8.0) years, 25 females and 11 males, chronic pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity and interference, as well as on the affective impact of pain, medication use, and pain location | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once per day for 2 weeks with a 1-week washout between periods |
| Marceau et al (2010) [53] | Acceptability and ease | Randomized, controlled trial | 134 | Mean age 49.5 (SD 11.3) years, 67 females and 67 males, chronic pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity and interference, as well as on the affective impact of pain, medication use, and pain location | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format monthly for 10 months |
| Matthews et al (2018) [54] | Score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 32 | Mean age 24.5 (SD 5.6) years, 25 females and 7 males, nontraumatic knee pain | Tablet-based method of collecting data on pain area, location, and distribution through drawing | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once with a 1-2-min washout between periods |
| Neudecker et al (2006) [55] | Score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 53 | Mean age 51.0 (range 18.0-78.0) years, 33 females and 20 males, postoperative pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity | Manually manipulated slide device-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format while participants were at rest and while coughing (number of assessments not specified) |
| Palermo et al (2004) [56] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, and score equivalence | Randomized, controlled trial | 60 | Mean age electronic version 12.3 (SD 2.4) years, mean age paper version 12.3 (SD 3.0) years, 42 females and 18 males, headache or juvenile idiopathic arthritis | PDA program collecting data on faces scale-rated pain intensity, pain sensory characteristics, affective and functional impact of pain | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed the assigned format for 7 consecutive days |
| Pawar et al (2017) [57] | Acceptability, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 52 | Mean age 46.6 (SD 14.5) years, 31 females and 21 males, low back pain | Mobile phone program collecting data on the occurrence of pain interference (RMDQ) | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format with a 1-hour interval between assessments |
| Ritter et al (2004) [58] | Data completeness and score equivalence | Randomized, controlled trial | 397 | Mean age electronic version 45.9 (SD 14.3) years, mean age paper version 44.6 (SD 13.5) years, 287 females and 110 males, diabetes, asthma, heart disease, lung disease, hypertension | Computer program collecting data on 16 health-related variables including NRS-rated pain intensity | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed assigned format once |
| Rolfson et al (2011) [59] | Data completeness and score equivalence | Randomized, controlled trial | 2400 | Group mean age and sex ratio not specified, total hip replacement surgical pain | Computer program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity and health-related quality of life | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed assigned format once |
| Saleh et al (2002) [60] | Acceptability and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 87 | Mean age 63.5 (SD 11.6) years, 3 females and 84 males, hip or knee pain | PDA program collecting data on VRS-rated pain intensity and interference (SF-36) and NRS-rated pain interference (WOMACl) | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed assigned format once |
| Sanchez-Rodrıguez et al (2015) [61] | Acceptability and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, crossover | 180 | Mean age 14.9 (SD 1.64; age range: 12–19) years, 104 females and 76 males, pain in the last 3 months | Mobile phone program, collecting NRS-, faces pain scale-, VAS-and CASm-pain intensity data | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each assigned format once with a 30-min interval between assessments |
| Serif et al 2005 [62] | Ease and efficiency | Nonrandomized, cohort | 50 | Age range 27-65 years, sex not specified, back pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-pain intensity, pain location, and other symptoms | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed assessments every 2 hours (between 10 am and 4 pm) for 5 days |
| Stinson et al (2008 and 2014) [5,24] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 76 in nonjoint injection group and 36 in joint injection group | Mean age nonjoint injection group 13.4 (SD 2.5) years, 59 females and 17 males, arthritis; mean age joint injection group 12.6 (SD 2.4) years, 24 females and 12 males, arthritis | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, interference and unpleasantness | Paper based tool (different from the electronic tool in that recall period was 1 week) and quality of life and pain coping also assessed | Participants completed the electronic format 3 times daily for 14 days (21 days for joint injection group) and the conventional format on days 7 and 14 (and 21 for joint injection group) |
| Stinson et al (2012) [63] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 24 children aged 4-7 years (with parents) and 77 youth aged 8-18 years | Mean age younger children 5.9 (SD 0.9) years, mean age older children 13.5 (SD 3.1) years, 61 females and 36 males, various rheumatic diseases | (1) Mobile phone program collecting data on faces scale or NRS-rated pain intensity, pain sensory characteristics and affective and functional impact of pain and (2) computer program (same assessment as used in the mobile phone format) | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic formats) | Participants completed each format once |
| Stinson et al (2015) [7] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 92 in nonsurgical group and 14 in surgical group | Mean age nonsurgical group 13.1 (SD 2.9) years, 45 females and 47 males, cancer; mean age surgical group 14.8 (SD 2.8) years, 7 females and 7 males, cancer surgery | Mobile phone program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, interference and unpleasantness, as well as pain duration and location, pain management strategies used | Paper-based tool (different from the electronic tool in that recall period was 1 week) and quality of life and pain coping also assessed | Participants completed the electronic format twice daily for 14 days (21 days for surgical group) and the conventional format on days 7 and 14 (and 21 for surgical group) |
| Stomberg et al (2012) [64] | Acceptability, data completeness, ease, efficiency, and score equivalence | Randomized, controlled trial | 40 | Age range 18-66 years, sex ratio not specified, posthysterectomy and postcholecystectomy pain | Mobile phone program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants in the electronic group completed pain assessments every 4 hours during the day for 6 days, plus ad hoc reports, participants in the conventional group completed pain assessments every 4 hours during the day for 4 days |
| Stone et al (2003) [65] | Data completeness and score equivalence | Randomized, controlled trial | 91 | Mean age across groups 49.0-53.5 (SD 10.4-10.7) years, 77 females and 14 males, chronic pain | PDA program collecting data on VAS-rated pain intensity, pain sensory characteristics, and affective and functional impact of pain | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants in the electronic group completed pain assessments either 3, 6, or 12 times per day for 2 weeks, participants in the conventional group completed pain assessments once per week for 2 weeks. |
| Sun et al (2015) [66] | Acceptability and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 128 | Median age faces pain scale group 7.5 (range 4-12 years), median age CAS group 13 (range 5-18 years), 52 females and 76 males, postoperative pain | Mobile phone program collecting data on faces pain scale- (children <5 years) and CAS- (children 5-12 years) rated pain intensity | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each tool within 10 min of waking from surgery and 30 min later with a 5-min washout interval in between |
| Suso-Ribera et al (2018) [67] | Data completeness, ease, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 38 | Mean age 42.7 (SD 9.9) years, 20 females and 18 males, chronic pain | Mobile phone-based program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity and interference, as well as pain catastrophizing, pain acceptance, and fear and avoidance, mood and coping | Paper- and telephone-based tool collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity and interference, as well as pain catastrophizing, pain acceptance, and fear/avoidance, mood and coping (tools used may have differed from electronic format) | Participants completed the electronic format twice daily for 30 days and the conventional format at baseline and after each study week |
| Symonds et al (2015) [68] | Score equivalence | Nonrandomized, crossover | 356 | Mean age across groups 58.4 (SD 8.4) years, 279 females and 77 males, osteoarthritis of the index knee | PDA program collecting data on VRS-rated pain intensity and interference (SF-36) and NRS-rated pain interference (WOMAC) | Paper-based tool collected data from the WOMAC | Participants complete each format once (washout period not specified) |
| Theiler et al (2007) [69] | Acceptability | Nonrandomized, cohort | 60 | Mean age 52.1 (range 23.0-79.0) years, 36 females and 24 males, chronic pain | Computer program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity, medication use, and other symptoms | Telephone-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed either format every day for 1 week followed by 3-4 days per week for 3 additional weeks |
| VanDenKerkhof et al (2003) [70] | Data completeness, efficiency, and score equivalence | Nonrandomized, cohort | 84 | Age and sex ratio not specified, postorthopedic surgical pain | PDA-based program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity and physician orders | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Physician completed each format for half of the study period, assessments were completed once per participant |
| VanDenKerkhof et al (2004) [71] | Data completeness and efficiency | Randomized, controlled trial | 74 | Mean age electronic group 64.0 (SD 10.0) years, mean age conventional group 58.0 (SD 16.0) years, sex ratio not specified, postorthopedic surgical pain | PDA program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity and physician orders | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed assigned format once |
| Wæhrens et al (2015) [72] | Acceptability, ease, and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 20 | Mean age 47.8 (SD 11.0) years, 20 females, chronic widespread pain | Computer program collecting data on NRS-rated pain intensity, interference, affect as part of the FIQn, as well as measures of depression, quality of life, coping and anxiety | Paper based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once with a 5-min wash-out interval |
| Wood et al (2011) [21] | Acceptability and score equivalence | Randomized, crossover | 202 | Mean age 8.3 (SD 2.6) years, 85 females and 117 males, postoperative or disease-related pain | PDA program collecting data on faces scale-rated pain intensity | Paper-based tool (same assessment as used in the electronic format) | Participants completed each format once with a 30-min washout between periods |
aPDA: personal digital assistant.
bVAS: Visual Analog Scale.
cNRS: Numerical Rating Scale.
dRMDQ: Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire.
eVRS: Verbal Rating Scale.
fSF-36: Short Form 36 Health Survey.
gSF-MPQ: Short Form McGill Pain Questionnaire.
hPDI: Pain Disability Index.
iBPI: Brief Pain Inventory.
jRADAI: Rheumatoid Arthritis Disease Activity Index.
kHAQ: Health Assessment Questionnaire.
lWOMAC: Western Ontario and McMaster University Osteoarthritis Index.
mCAS: Color Analogue Scale.
nFIQ: Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire.