Table 1.
Beluga whale association patterns and behavior at ten locations that span different populations and habitats across the species range.
| Group type | Location | Date | Description | Behaviour* | Field analysis | Genetic analysis | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Category | Details | Likely function | Group size | Group ages** | Sample size | Sex | Sample ages** | |||||
| A | Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F, M | A, C |
| Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
| Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
| Adult–calf dyad | Svalbard | 8/21/1999 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
| Adult–calf dyad | Norton Sound | 9/23/1995 | Fall movements | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F, M | A, C | |
| Adult–calf dyad | Cook Inlet | 10/31/2001 | Resident population | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F | A, C | |
| Adult–calf dyad | Mackenzie delta | 8/1/1997 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | 2 | F, M | A, C | |
| Adult–calf dyad | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Directed movement, close association | Travel, natal care | 2 | A, C | ||||
| A1 | Triad | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Large white, neonate, 2/3 grey: in association | Travel, natal care | 3 | A, C | |||
| B | Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, turning, loose group | Social interaction, creshe | 15–20 | A, C | 3 | F | A |
| Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Adult with 3/4 grey-white and 1/2 grey | Travel | 3 | A, J, C | ||||
| Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | 3 adults w. calves | Travel | 6 | A, C | ||||
| Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | 2 adults with neonates, close association | Travel, natal care | 4 | A, C | ||||
| Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, O | 9 adult w. calves, rubbing on substrate, swimming upside down, spy hopping | Social interaction, molting | 18 | A, C | ||||
| Adult–calf group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | 5 adults w. calves, loose group in close association, directed movement | Travel, natal care | 10 | A, C | ||||
| C | Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, O | Contact, rapid turning, bubble blasts, vocalizations, chase, rubbing | Social interaction, play, molt | 3 | J | 3 | F | J |
| Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, twisting, spy hopping | Social interaction, play | 2 | J | ||||
| Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Swim in unison | Social interaction, travel, dominance | 4 | J | ||||
| Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Active interactions | Social interaction, play | 3 | J | ||||
| Juveniles only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Individuals moving between 4 sub-groups, contact, upsidedown, aerial, rubbing, | Social interaction, play, molt | 17 | J | ||||
| D | Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, O | Rubbing, swim in close formation, aggression to others—observed for 3 h | Social interaction, dominance, molt | 7 | A | 5 | M | A |
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Swim in close formation, aggression to others | Social interaction, dominance | 2 | A | 2 | M | A | |
| Adults only group | Svalbard | 8/4/1997 | Summer aggregation and fall movements | T | Directed movement, travelled together for months | Travel | 3 | A | 3 | M | A | |
| Adults only group | Svalbard | 8/12/1997 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement | Travel | 2 | A | 2 | M | A | |
| Adults only group | Mackenzie Delta | 29/7/1997 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement, synchronized summer movements | Travel | 3 | A | 2 | M | A | |
| Adults only group | Mackenzie Delta | 31/7/1997 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement, synchronized summer movements | Travel | ~ 15 | A | 2 | M | A | |
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement, head up, avoided by other whales | Travel, dominance | 5 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/23/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Swim in unison-parallel, avoided by other whales | Social interaction, travel, dominance | 10 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S, T | Patrol beach back and forth | Social interaction, travel, dominance | 11 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, O | Slowly swimming, rubbing on substrate | Travel, molt | 12 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, lateral ventrum presentation, chasing off smaller whales | Social interaction, dominance, sexual (?) | 2 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Audible vocalizations, slow, coordinated movements | Social interaction, travel | 2 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Rolling, etc. chasing off other whales | Social interaction | 8 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Loose group; directed movement, rolling, spyhop, 'foghorn' vocal | Travel, social interaction | 12 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Patrolling shore, contact, aggression to others, aerial flipper, | Socisal interaction, dominance, sexual (?) | 3 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/28/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Chasing Smaller whales, vocalizations | Social interaction, dominance | 3 | A | ||||
| Adults only group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement in close association | Travel | 2 | A | ||||
| E | Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, rapid turning, bubble blasts, vocalizations | Social interaction | 5 | A, J | 2 | F | A, J |
| Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/28/1998 | Summer aggregation | S | Contact, rapid turning | Social interaction | ~ 50 | A, J | 6 | F, M | A, J | |
| Mixed age group | Svalbard | 8/22/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | Directed movement | Travel | 5 | A, J | 5 | F, M | A, J | |
| Mixed age group | Anadyr Bay | 7/18/2001 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Directed movement, contact, rapid turning | Travel, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 11 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed age group | Yakutat Bay | 5/19/2005 | Resident group | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, social interaction | Travel, social interaction, possible feed | 6–8 | A, J | 2 | M, – | A | |
| Mixed age group | Yakutat Bay | 5/19/2008 | Resident group | T | Directed movement | Travel | 5–8 | A, J | 2 | A, J | ||
| Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/26/1998 | Summer aggregation | T | 2 adult whites w. adult–calf pair: in association | Travel | 4 | A, C | ||||
| Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | Directed movement, range of activities | Travel, social interaction, play | 3 | |||||
| Mixed age group | Cunningham Inlet | 7/29/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S | 2 adult whites loosely associating w. and following adult-neonate pair | Travel, pursuit-courtship | 4 | A, C | ||||
| F | Adults only herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/26/1998 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A | 54 | M | A |
| Adults only herd‡ | Kotzebue Sound | 8/23–8/28/2007 | Summer movements, anomalous event | T, O | Directed movement, concentrate in very shallow water | Predator avoidance | _ | A | 50 | F, M | A | |
| G | Mixed-age herd† | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/27/1988 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 27 | F, M | A, J, C |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/4/1993 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 47 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/26/1994 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 22 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/30/1995 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 18 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/30/1996 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 35 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/29/1999 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 39 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/3/2001 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 42 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/7/2002 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 50 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/23/2003 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 36 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/18/2004 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 41 | F, M | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/26/2005 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 41 | F, M | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 7/13/2006 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 28 | F, M | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Kasegaluk Lagoon | 6/22/2007 | Spring migration, staging | T, M, S | Directed movement, milling, close association, turning | Migration, social interaction | _ | A, J, C | 64 | F, M | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Husky Lakes | 11/9/1989 | Ice-entrapment event | T, M | Traveling, milling | _ | A | 9 | F, M | A | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Husky Lakes | 11/17/1989 | Ice-entrapment event | T, M | Traveling, milling | _ | A, C | 4 | F, M | A | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Husky Lakes | 12/7/1996 | Ice-entrapment event | T, M | Traveling, milling | _ | A, J, C | 17 | F, M | A, J, C | ||
| Mixed-age herd | Cook Inlet | 8/28/1996 | Mass-stranding event | _ | Mass mortality | 60 | A | 5 | M, – | A | ||
| H | Daily aggregation | Cunningham Inlet | 7/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S, O | Individuals biopsied from one location over 10 h | Molt | _ | A, J | 9 | F, M | A, J |
| Daily aggregation | Cunningham Inlet | 7/25/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S, O | Individuals biopsied from one location over 9 h | _ | A, J | 9 | F, M | A, J | ||
| Daily aggregation | Cunningham Inlet | 7/27/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, S, O | Individuals biopsied from one location over 2 h | _ | A | 5 | F, M | A | ||
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 10/13/1995 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A, J | 2 | F, M | A, J | |
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 10/7/1996 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A | 3 | M | A | |
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 5/13/1998 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A | 2 | F, M | A | |
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 5/31/1999 | Resident population, aggregate at river mouth | M | Milling in same river mouth | Feeding | _ | A, J | 2 | F, M | A, J | |
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/29/1999 | Resident population | At same location | _ | A | 3 | F, M | A | |||
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/11/1999 | Resident population | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A | 2 | F, M | A | |||
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/13/2001 | Resident population | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A | 2 | F | A | |||
| Daily aggregation | Cook Inlet | 8/3/2002 | Resident population | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A | 3 | F, M | A | |||
| Daily aggregation | Anadyr Bay | 8/25/2008 | Summer aggregation | M | Sampled at same location within a few hours | _ | A, J, C | 7 | ||||
| I | Multi-day aggregation | Svalbard | 8/23–8/24/1998 | Summer aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J, C | 10 | F, M | A, J, C | |
| Multi-day aggregation | Svalbard | 10/14–10/19/2000 | Fall aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J | 6 | F, M | A, J | ||
| Multi-day aggregation | Svalbard | 10/17–10/19/2001 | Fall aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J, C | 8 | F, M | A, J, C | ||
| Multi-day aggregation | Anadyr Bay | 8/22–8/25/2008 | Summer aggregation | T, M, S | Sampled at same location | _ | A, J, C | 13 | ||||
Sampling details and sex determinations from the genetic analysis are also included.
* The four behavioral categories are: Travel (T), Social (S), Mill (M), and Other (O). See Appendix 1 for details
** Age categories: Adult (A): full length, white; Juvenile (J) ≥ 2/3 length-full length, grey-white; Calf (C): ≤ 2/3 length, grey
†Whale herds at Kasegaluk Lagoon were typically driven, sometimes for several hours, prior to arrival at the lagoon. To minimize the influence of hunting, descriptions of behaviors did not occur immediately prior, during or immediately after hunting activities