Table 1.

Traits affected by waterlogging and submergence in plants.

Trait	Function	Plant Species	References
Aerenchyma	Improvement in internal gas diffusion	Zea mays; Oryza sativa; Pisum sativum; Triticum aestivum; Arabidopsis thaliana	[2,35,36,37,38,39,40]
Hypertrophic lenticels	Facilitating O2 diffusion; venting ethylene and CO2	Woody plant species	[41]
Radial oxygen loss barrier	Barrier impermeable to radial O2 loss	Oryza sativa; Phragmites australis; Phalaris aquatica	[37,41,42]
Increased specific leaf area (indicating a large surface area relative to mass)	CO2 enters the mesophyll cells via diffusion through the epidermis and not via stomata	Rumex palustris and other amphibious species	[2]
Petiole elongation	Reaching water surface	Rumex palustris	[2,43]
Reorientation of petioles in upright position	Reaching water surface	Rumex palustris	[2,43]
Coleoptile elongation	Reaching water surface	Oryza sativa	[26,44,45]
Fast stem elongation	Reaching water surface	Oryza sativa (deep water rice)	[46,47]
Inhibition of stem elongation	Reducing growth-associated costs (quiescence strategy)	Oryza sativa	[48,49]
Root architecture	Minimize the distance between the aerial surface and the flooded root tips	Oryza sativa; Zea mais; Triticum aestivum	[1,38]
Adventitious roots production	Replace primary root systems; roots at surface of water; enhance supply of water and minerals	Zea mais; Solanum lycopersicon; Solanum dulcamara	[50,51]