Table 2.
Literature review on precedents of ACC production.
| Reinforcement | Matrix | Solvent | Anti-Solvent | Process | Mechanical Properties | Ref. | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ramie | Kraft pulp from coniferous trees | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [20] | ||||||||||
| 45 | 480 | ||||||||||||||||
| Microcrystalline cellulose | - | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [77] | ||||||||||
| 15 | 243 | ||||||||||||||||
| Beech pulp fibers | - | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [89] | ||||||||||
| 12.2 | 154 | ||||||||||||||||
| Filter paper | - | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [90] | ||||||||||
| 8.2 | 211 | ||||||||||||||||
| Ramie | Ramie | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [91] | ||||||||||
| 25 | 540 | ||||||||||||||||
| Ramie | - | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [79] | ||||||||||
| 28 | 460 | ||||||||||||||||
| Micro-fibrillated cellulose and filter paper | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride | Water | PD | 10.8 | 124 | [85] | ||||||||||
| Native cellulose nanowhiskers | - | NaOH/urea | Distilled water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [122] | ||||||||||
| 5 | 124 | ||||||||||||||||
| Microcrystalline cellulose | - | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [82] | ||||||||||
| 6.9 | 105 | ||||||||||||||||
| Lyocell Bocell | - | N-methyl morpholine N-oxide (NMMO) | Methanol | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [65] | ||||||||||
| Lyocell: 15 Bocell: 23 |
350 910 |
||||||||||||||||
| Bacterial cellulose | - | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [88] | ||||||||||
| 18 | 410 | ||||||||||||||||
| Rice husk | Filter paper | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride | Water | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [123] | ||||||||||
| 17 | 89 | ||||||||||||||||
| Microcrystalline cellulose | - | DMAc/LiCl | Distilled water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [86] | ||||||||||
| 1.5 | 65 | ||||||||||||||||
| Filter paper | - | PEG/NaOH aqueous solution | Water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [124] | ||||||||||
| 0.75 | 74 | ||||||||||||||||
| Eucalyptus pulp | Softwood dissolving | - | Water | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [125] | ||||||||||
| 13 | 76 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanowhiskers | Wood pulp | - | Water | CIM | Storage modulus at 20 °C (GPa) 4.9 |
[120] | |||||||||||
| Cellulose nanowhiskers | Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) | LiCl/DMAc | Water | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [126] | ||||||||||
| 4.8 | 128.4 | ||||||||||||||||
| Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) | Pretreated microcrystalline cellulose (PMCC) | Ionic liquid: 1-(2-hydroxylethyl)-3-methyl imidazolium chloride (HeMIMCI) | Water | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [127] | ||||||||||
| 3.7 | 52 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanocrystal | Dissolved eucalyptus pulp | NMMO | Water | Co-electrospinning | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [128] | ||||||||||
| 5.6 | 140 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanowhiskers | Cotton linter pulp | NaOH/urea | Water | Rapid thermal-induced phase separation | - | [129] | |||||||||||
| Nanofiber of canola | - | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | PD | Tensile strength (MPa) 164 |
[130] | |||||||||||
| Canola straw | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIMCl) | Methanol | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Strain at break (%) | [74] | |||||||||
| 17.5 | 188 | 11.8 | |||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanocrystals | cellulose acetate | Acetone and DMAc | KOH solution in ethanol | Electrospinning | - | [131] | |||||||||||
| Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIMCl) | Water | PD | Storage modulus at 40 °C (GPa) | [121] | |||||||||||
| 1.1 | |||||||||||||||||
| Linen flax fiber Rayon | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (BMIMAc) | Distilled water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [119] | ||||||||||
| Linen: 0.86 Rayon: 2.45 |
46 70.16 |
||||||||||||||||
| Cordenka | - | Ionic liquid: 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (BMIMAc) | Distilled water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [78] | ||||||||||
| 4 | 92 | ||||||||||||||||
| Lyocell Flax | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium-chloride | Distilled water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [84] | ||||||||||
| 7.2 4.6 |
78 34 |
||||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanowhiskers | Microcrystalline cellulose | LiCl/DMAc | Water | CIM | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [132] | ||||||||||
| 12.5 | 175.6 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cordenka | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (BMIMAc) | Distilled water | PD | Impact strength (kN/mm2) | Flexural modulus (GPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | [94] | |||||||||
| 1.96 | 3.8 | 140 | |||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanowhiskers | Microcrystalline cellulose | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water | CIM | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Stress at failure (MPa) | [87] | ||||||||||
| 13.6 | 170 | ||||||||||||||||
| 6.12 | 53 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cotton fabric | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIMCl) | Acetonitrile | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [93] | ||||||||||
| 0.05 | 20 | ||||||||||||||||
| Tunicate cellulose nanowhiskers | Microcrystalline cellulose | LiCl/DMAc | Water | CIM | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [133] | ||||||||||
| NaOH/urea | LiCl/DMAc system: 11.8 | 165.4 | |||||||||||||||
| NaOH/urea system: 9.8 | 137.1 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cotton linters cellulose | Softwood bleached kraft pulp | NaOH/urea/H2O | H2SO4 | CIM | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [134] | ||||||||||
| 6.2 | 167 | ||||||||||||||||
| Sugarcane bagasse nanofibers | - | LiCl/DMAc | Ethanol | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Toughness (m N m−3) | [135] | |||||||||
| 12.8 | 140 | 8.07 | |||||||||||||||
| Coconut Shell Powder and Microcrystalline Cellulose | - | LiCl/DMAc | Methanol | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [136] | ||||||||||
| 0.14 | 12 | ||||||||||||||||
| Straw cellulose fiber | Microcrystalline cellulose | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water | CIM | Tensile strength (MPa) | Flexural modulus (GPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | [137] | |||||||||
| 650 | 4 | 140 | |||||||||||||||
| Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) | - | Ionic liquid: 1-ally-3-methylimidazolium chloride (AMIMCl) | Water | PD | Young’s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [138] | ||||||||||
| 8.1 | 135 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cellulose nanocrystals | - | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water and methanol | PD | -- | [139] | |||||||||||
| Halloysite nanotubes | LiCl/DMAc | Distilled water and methanol | Young´s modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Strain at break (%) | ||||||||||||
| 5.6 | 126.2 | 11.4 | |||||||||||||||
| Rayon fiber textile | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (BMIMAc) | Distilled water | PD | Young´s modulus (GPa) 7.3 |
Tensile strength (MPa) 77.7 |
[140] | ||||||||||
| Pulp from paper making | - | Aqueous zinc chloride (ZnCl2) solvent | Tap water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [141] | ||||||||||
| 5.5 | 64.9 | ||||||||||||||||
| Cellulose extracted from empty bunch of palm oil | - | LiCl/DMAc | Water | PD | Elongation at break (%) | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | [142] | |||||||||
| 3.07 | 3.56 | 109 | |||||||||||||||
| Cellulose fibrils extracted from native African Napier grass | Cotton | LiOH/urea | Ethyl alcohol | CIM | Elongation at break (%) | Tensile stress (MPa) | [143] | ||||||||||
| 12.7–8.6 | 49.7–76.8 | ||||||||||||||||
| Lyocell | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride | Distilled water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) 1.7 |
Tensile stress (MPa) 45 |
[144] | ||||||||||
| Cotton | - | LiCl/DMAc | Water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile stress (MPa) | [111] | ||||||||||
| 5.5 | 144 | ||||||||||||||||
| Alfa fibers | Alfa pulp Wood pulp |
NaOH/water | Water | CIM | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile stress (MPa) | [92] | ||||||||||
| Alfa ACC = 3.8 Wood ACC = 4.2 |
16 13.9 |
||||||||||||||||
| Lyocell | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIMCl) | Water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile stress (MPa) | Flexural modulus (GPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | [116] | ||||||||
| 1.8 | 44.2 | 0.96 | 48.9 | ||||||||||||||
| Lyocell | - | Ionic liquid: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride | Water | PD | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Tensile stress (MPa) | Flexural modulus (GPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | [117] | ||||||||
| 4.2 | 102.6 | 11 | 178.3 | ||||||||||||||