Table 1.

Chemicals that promote actin polymerization or depolymerization and their role in the osteogenic or adipogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells

Chemical	Dose and duration	Osteogenic/adipogenic marker	References
Cytochalasin D	0.1 μg/mL for 48 h	ALP and calcium levels decreased at days 5 and 10	[29]
Cytochalasin D	100 ng/mL for 1, 3, 7, and 14 days	Decreased levels of ALP and osteocalcin, increased levels of adiponectin and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG)	[16]
Cytochalasin D	0.02 mg/mL	Increased adipogenesis	[83]
Cytochalasin D	1–20 μM, 1 h every day for 9 days	Decreased osteoblast differentiation, decreased ALP and mineral matrix	[55]
Phalloidin	0–6 μM, 3 h every day for 9 days	Increased ALP activity and mineralized matrix formation
Cytochalasin D	0.1 mg/mL day 1	Osterix, osteocalcin, and Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) levels increased on days 2 and 3	[84]
Cytochalasin D	0.1 mg/mL for 3 days	Increase in osteogenesis (higher level of alkaline phosphatase, tissue-nonspecific isozyme (Alpl), specificity protein (Sp7), gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein (Bglap genes)) and adipogenesis (higher level of fatty acid-binding protein (FABP4), adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ genes)) in growth medium, increased adipogenesis in adipogenic medium, and increases osteogenesis in osteogenic medium	[57]
Cytochalasin D	0.1 mg/mL for 14 days	Increase in osteogenesis through increased expression of the VGLL4 gene; the effect of cytochalasin D was dependent on the biological state of the cells	[85]
Cytochalasin D	1–20 μM for 1 h every day for 13 days	Increased adipocyte differentiation	[49]
Phalloidin	0–3 μM for 3 h every day for 13 days	Decreased adipocyte differentiation and adipocyte-specific gene expression (ADIPOQ, LPL, PPARG, FABP4)	[49]
Cytochalasin D	–	Increased adipogenesis through the regulation of the FGF2, TGFβ2, EGR2, MEF2D, and IRS1 genes	[56]