Table 4.

Similarities between agricultural and public health insecticide classes and reported resistance mechanisms in disease vectors

Class of insecticide	Trade name (active ingredient (s)	Primary site/mode of action in an insect/vector	Agricultural use	Public health use	Known resistance and resistance mechanism in disease vectors
Pyrethroids	Karate 5 EC (lambda-cyhalothrin)	Voltage-gated sodium channels/neurotoxic	Control of bollworms and aphids in vegetables and cotton [42]	Disease and vector control (IRS and LLINs) [43, 44]	Knock-down mutation [45] Metabolic resistance [46] Cuticle thickening [47]
Organophosphates	Dasba 40 EC (chloropyrifos)	Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors	Insecticide against insect pests in fruits, beans, tomatoes, cotton, coffee and green vegetables [48]	Disease and vector control (IRS and LLINs) [49]	Metabolic resistance [50]
Neonicotinoids	Amekan C344 SE (200 g/l of imidacloprid and 144 g/l of cypermethrin)	Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (n AChRs)	Systemic insecticides with contact and stomach action against sucking and chewing pests on cotton, vegetables and flowers [51].	Prequalified vector and disease control products [52, 53]	Metabolic resistance and target-sites [54, 55]
Carbamates	Farmerzeb 80 WP (80% WP of mancozeb)	Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors	A broad spectrum protectant and preventive fungicide for the control of fungal diseases on vegetables	Disease and vector control (IRS and LLINs) [56]	Metabolic resistance [57, 58]