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Astrocytes promote microglial ramification by releasing TGF-β and glial fibers. Microglia are sparsely branched in brain tissue or in vitro when astrocytes are absent (A,B). Soluble factors secreted by astrocytes, such as TGF-β, promote the formation of primary branches of microglia (C). Glial fibers from astrocytes promote the formation of refined branches (main branches are small in diameter with sub-branches and protuberances; D–F).
